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This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


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Foi-m  L-9-5»)-5,'24 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


COMMUNITY    CIVICS 


BY 

EDGAR   W.   AMES,    xM.A. 

HKAI)    OF    THK    DEPARTMENT    OK    HISTORY    AND 
CIVICS,    TROY    IIIGM    SCHOOL,    TROY,    N.Y. 


ARVIE  ELDRED,  M.A. 

SI  rEIUNTENDEXT    OF    SCHOOLS 
TKOY,    N.Y. 


34-34-4 

Xfto  Idoik 

THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1921 

All  rights  reserved 


Copyright,  1921, 
By   the   MACMILLAN   COMPANY. 

Set  up  and  eleclrotyped.     Published  January,  ig2i. 


A  Si. 


PREFACE 

"The  old  order  changeth"  and  new  metliods  take  the 

place  of  the  old.     The  old  methods  of  teaching,'  the  science 

of    government,  outworn    and    laid  aside,  give  place  to  a 

wider  interpretation  of  the  subject  and  a  wider  application 

of  its  principles.     The  teaching  of  the  mechanics  of  go\ern- 

ment  is  not  enough  ;    the  children  must  learn  how  people 

live  together  in  communities  and  how  they  may  best  share 

in  the  activities  arising  from  this  life  together.     Along  with 

[!  the  other  great  changes  it  wrought,  the  World  War  did  more 

cs^  to  bring  about  this  change  in  the  teaching  of  civics  than 

"  anything  since  the  subject  was  placed  on  the  list  of  studies 

^for  our  schools.     The  whole  nation  has  awakened  to  the 

■~-  fact  that  the  most  important  work  of  the  teacher  is  the 

^  making  of  citizens;    that  the  best  tool  for  that  work  is  the 

/  study  of  the  relationship  of  the  individual  to  his  fellow  man 

^  and  to  the  government  instituted  for  his  benefit. 

f      This  book  is  the  outcome  of  attempts  to  teach  the  children 

^    in  our  local  schools  something  of  this  new  idea  of  government, 

something  of  their  duties  in  connnunity  life.     A  great  deal 

of  the  matter  in  the  text  is  theirs,  and  many  of  the  questions 

and  problems  are  those  asked  by  the  cliildrtMi  during  the 

recitation  period.     Nothing  has  been   iiiducU'd   in  the  text 

that  has  not  "worked." 

The  book  is  offered  in  the  hope  that  it  may  iiavc  some 
share  in  the  making  of  better  citizens;  in  teaching  the 
children  that  one  may  be  just  as  truly  a  good  eitizen  in  the 


Vi  PREFACE 

home  and  the  school  as  elsewhere;  that  the  one  who  is  a 
good  citizen  in  the  home  and  the  school  is  the  one  who  will 
be  the  good  citizen  when  grown  up.  Again,  it  is  hoped 
that  the  book  will  train  some  of  the  coming  generation  to 
understand  their  responsibility  toward  the  fellow  members 
of  their  community  and  will  arouse  interest  in  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  government  activities.  If  it  has  a  share 
in  such  a  work,  time  and  labor  will  not  have  been  spent  in 
vain. 

The  authors  wish  to  acknowledge  courtesies  not  noted  in 
the  text  extended  by  the  State  Normal  School,  Geneseo, 
N.  Y.,  The  Livingstone  County  Trust  Company,  Geneseo, 
N.  Y.,  and  the  following  departments  of  the  government  of 
New  York  state:  State  Police,  Prison  Commission,  Charities 
Commission,  Conservation  Commission,  Highway  Commis- 
sion, and  the  State  Engineer.  Through  the  help  of  these 
officials  it  was  possible  to  get  authoritative  photographs  to 
illustrate  the  varied  activities  of  local  and  state  government. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 


^. 


CHAPTER 
I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 
V. 

.VI. 


VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 

XXI. 


The  Beginning  of  a  Co-MMUNiri' 

The  Ho.me,  the  F.\.mily,  and  the  Co.m.munity 

Education 

Goveun.ment  and  Health  . 
Protection  of  Life  and  Property 
Government  and  Play 
Transportation   . 

CO-MMUNICATION      . 

Migration    . 

The  Correction  of  Wrong-doers  and  the  Court 

The  Needy  and  Dependent 

Government  ant)  Making  a  Living  :  Lant) 

Government  and  Making  a  Living  :  Labor 

Government  and  Making  a  Living:  Capital 

I)EAUt\'  i.n  the  Local  Community 

The  Govern.ment  of  a  Small  Community 

The  Government  of  a  Larger  Co.mmunity 

The  Lawmakers  of  State  ant)  Nation    . 

The  St.\te  Executives       .... 

The  President 

The  President's  Advisers. 
vii 


Vlll 


TABLE   OF   CONTEXTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

XXII.    Political  Parties  and  Elections      ....  330 

XXIII.  How  Government  Pays  Its  Expenses      .        .        .  341 

XXIV.  The  Making  of  the  Federal  Constitution    .        .  349 
XXV.     The  Constitution  of  the  United  States         .        ,  354 

Appendix:  The  Constitution 363 

Index 383 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


1.  A  lofi  cahiii 

2.  The  \'an  Scliaick  house 
o.  Main  street  of  a  small  foinimiiiity 

4.  Main  street  of  a  larger  community 

5.  Dangers  of  city  streets  (four  scenes) 

6.  A  street  of  fine  homes 

7.  A  modern  liome    .... 

8.  What  war  does  to  homes 

9.  A  rural  school       .... 

10.  The  high  school  in  a  small  connnunity 

1 1 .  State  school  for  the  training  of  teacher 

12.  New  York  State  Education  Building 

13.  A  modern  school  huilding     . 

14.  The  library  of  a  small  conmiunity 

15.  A  river  in  flood     .... 

16.  Cleaning  up  .... 

17.  Poster  of  a  Department  of  Health 
IS.  The  hand  of  health 

19.  A  had  fire 

20.  Fire  ajjparatus  of  a  small  connnunity 

21.  A  horse-drawn  steamer 

22.  A  modern  pumper 

23.  A  state  trooper     .         .         .         • 

24.  Transporting  troops  in  war  time  . 

25.  The  right  way  to  get  off  a  trolley  car 

26.  Ball  playing  in  the  street  (two  views) 

27.  Dangers  of  street  play  (three  views) 

ix 


3 

5 

(5 

8 

16,  17 

18 


35 
37 
38 
41 
45 
46 
54 
56 
57 
63 
69 
70 
71 
71 
71 
75 
77 
83 
86,  87 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


28.  Cottages  at  Los  Angeles  Municipal  Camp 

29.  The  circus     . 
.'50.    A  ball  game 

31.  A  Boy  Scout  camp 

32.  A  stagecoach 

33.  A  motor  barge 

34.  Development  of  shipping  on  the  Hudson 

35.  The  DeWitt  Clinton     . 

36.  The  Twentieth  Century  Limited 

37.  Scenes  on  the  Panama  Canal  (two  views) 

38.  Inter-city  transportation 

39.  A  bridge  of  modern  construction 

40.  A  safe  railroad  crossing 
4L    No  matter  how  careful  (two  views) 

42.  A  government  official    . 

43.  Switchboard  of  a  telegraph  company 

44.  Telephone  construction 

45.  Radio  students  at  naval  station    . 

46.  Sending  communications  in  war  time 

47.  Airplanes  in  flight 
4S.    The  Statue  of  Liberty 

49.  Immigrants  at  Ellis  Island    . 

50.  Lower  New  York 
5L    The  stocks    ..... 

52.  A  model  lock-up  in  a  small  commimity 

53.  Scene  in  a  court  room  . 
.54.    Prison  cells  in  a  modern  prison     . 

55.  Ball  game  in  a  prison    . 

56.  Prisoners  working  in  prison  shop 

57.  An  orphan  asylum 
.58.    Work  of  the  Red  Cross  in  peace  . 

59.  Work  of  the  Red  Cross  in  war 

60.  Homes  for  dependents 


ILLUSTKATIUXS 


XI 


61.  What  carelessness  does  to  forests  (two  views) 

62.  A  fire  lookout  tower 
6;5.    A  herd  of  bufYalo 
(11.    Kiu^^-neckcil  ])heasants 

65.  Wild  turkeys 

66.  Newsboys     .... 

67.  Child  labor  on  the  farm 

68.  A  family  working  on  fla<,'  ])ins 

69.  A  modern  reaper  . 

70.  Cutting  grain  with  a  cradle 

71.  Cutting  grass  with  a  scythe 

72.  Modern  methods  of  harvesting 
7;^.    A  salt  mine  .... 

74.  An  auto-crane  unloading  cargo 
7o.    A  ])ank  in  a  small  conununity 

76.  Stone  house  near  Livingstone 

77.  A  badly  kept  street 

75.  The  same  street  beatitifieil    . 

79.  A  back  yard  garden 

80.  Back  yard  before  beautifying 
SI.    Back  yard  after  beautifying 

82.  Tree-lined  avenues 

83.  "Be  aye  stickin'  in  a  bit  tree" 

84.  A  child's  garden    . 

85.  A  small  community 

86.  Our  largest  community 

87.  A  gUmpse  of  the  Capitol 

88.  The  United  States  Capitol    . 

89.  The  Congressional  Library 

90.  The  Waterford  lock 

91.  Stocking  a  stream  with  trout 

92.  A  movable  dam    . 

93.  A  road  under  construction  (four  views) 


Xll 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 

!)4.   The  White  House 291 

9o.    The  Washington  Monument 

.     295 

96.    The  Pan  American  Building 

.     304 

97.    A  war  photograph  from  an  airplane 

.     309 

98.    The  advance         .... 

.     310 

99.    Cadets  at  dress  parade 

.     311 

100.    West  Point 

.     312 

101.    U.  S.  S.  Nevada     .... 

.     314 

102.    New  National  Museum 

.     316 

103.    Separating  pine  cones  . 

.     318 

104.    The  work  of  forest  rangers   . 

.     319 

10.5.   ArrowTock  Dam    .... 

.     320 

106.    A  row  of  imperial  apple  trees 

.     321 

107.   A  good  catch        .... 

.     323 

108.   A  political  cartoon 

.     331 

109.   A  political  cartoon 

.     334 

1 10.    Voter  entering  booth     . 

.     336 

111.    Voting  a  split  ticket 

.     337 

SUGGESTIONS  TO   TEACH  I<:RS 

It  is  hoped  that  no  teacher  will  be  satisfied  to  assign 
pages  of  this  book  to  be  learned.  It  is  expected  that  the 
book  will  be  used  as  a  basis  for  the  study  of  general  condi- 
tions, but  such  study  will  be  of  no  value  unless  the  facts  arc 
aj)plie(l  to  one's  own  commvniity,  its  activities,  and  what- 
ever mechanics  of  government  are  necessary  to  make  these 
activities  function  properly. 

The  matter  in  the  text  is  arranged  in  such  a  way  that  it 
will  give  the  teacher  considerable  latitude  in  its  use.  If 
it  seems  best  to  study  the  national  government  before  that 
of  the  local  community,  it  may  be  done.  If  it  seems  wise  to 
use  a  method  other  than  that  of  the  historical  approach, 
the  text  will  lend  itself  to  that  method.  But  whatever 
method  of  approach  to  a  topic  is  used,  the  teacher  should 
use  that  methtxl  consistently. 

The  questions  found  at  the  end  of  each  cliai)ter  are,  in  a 
large  part,  those  asked  by  the  pupils  in  our  classes  in  Com- 
munity Civics  during  the  past  few  years.  Such  questions 
naturally  give  the  viewpoint  of  the  young  citizen,  and  for 
that  reason  should  be  of  liclp.  It  i^  not  to  i)e  expected, 
however,  that  all  the  questions  will  be  used  in  every  class. 
Most  teachers  will  have  problems  peculiar  to  their  own 
community;  the  questions  asked  in  the  classroom  will  have 
a  greater  bearing  on  the  local  proi)lems  than  any  textbook 
questions  could  have.  The  live  teacher  will  find  it  extraor- 
dinarily easy  to  get  questions  from  the  children, — questions 


XIV  SUGGESTIONS  TO   TEACHERS 

that  show  an  amazing  amount  of  tliought  concerning  the 
life  and  government  of  the  community. 

Anything  that  will  bring  the  children  into  actual  touch 
with  the  activities  of  government, — a  visit  to  the  city  hall, 
the  post  office,  the  library,  the  state  capitol,  or  interviews 
with  the  officials  of  the  community, — will  add  much  to  the 
interest  of  the  work,  l^ictures,  documents,  and  reports 
should  be  a  part  of  the  daily  work. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  teachers  of  civics  will  see  to  it  that 
the  girls  in  their  classes  have  particular  attention.  Such 
a  sudden  change  has  taken  place  in  the  political  status  of 
women  during  the  past  few  years  that  it  has  brought  to  the 
polls  many  who  have  had  no  experience  in  helping  govern. 
Girls  who  always  "hated  civics"  are  now  placed  in  a  position 
in  which  they  must  intelligently  share  in  the  activities  of 
government.  The  authors  ha^'e  included  in  both  text  and 
questions  much  material  that  will  be  of  interest  to  this  the 
larger  part  of  our  students  and  unfortunately  the  group 
most  neglected  in  the  teaching  of  the  subject  in  the  past. 

It  is  believed  that  the  historical  method  of  approach  used 
in  connection  with  most  of  the  topics  discussed  will  help  to 
smooth  the  path  of  the  teacher.  Having  just  finished,  or 
being  about  to  finish  their  American  history,  the  pupils  will 
find  it  easier  to  understand  that  "history  should  prepare  for 
political  duties"  and  that  our  institutions  and  their  activities 
have  arisen  from  those  very  events  about  which  they  have 
learned  in  a  subject  recently  studied. 


^i)e  ^Imerican's  Creeti 

I  beliebe  in  tlje  WLnittti  Statess  of  ^tmerica 
as  a  gobcrnmcnt  of  tf)c  people,  fag  tijc  people,  for 
tljE  people;  lii{)ose  just  poiners  are  "Dertbeti  from 
tl)e  consent  of  t\)z  goloerncti;  a  brmocracg  in  a 
repufaUc;  a  sofaereign  state  of  mang  sobereign 
states;  a  perfect  union,  one  ant(  inseparable; 
estafalisf}eti  upon  tl[}0SE  principles  of  freetam, 
cqualitg,  justice,  anli  |)umanitg  for  tof}ici)  Smcr= 
iran  patriots  sacrificcti  tijeir  lilacs  ant  fortunes. 

];  tl)erefore  facliet>e  it  is  mg  tutg  to  nig  coun= 
trg  to  lobe  it;  to  support  its  constitution;  to 
ofaeg  its  latos;  to  respect  its  flag,  anli  to  tiefentJ 
it  against  all  enemies. 

—  SiSailliam  Eglrr  iiDagr 


COMMUNITY  CIVICS 

CHAPTER   I 
THE  BEGINNING   OF  A  COMMUNITY 

A  pretty  little  brook  came  runninji;  down  to  a  iarue  river. 
Here  it  murmured  to  the  trees  along  its  banks,  there  bab- 
bled away  over  the  stones,  and  rushing  onward,  sparkled 
brightly  in  the  sun.  Finally,  just  before  its  waters  mingled 
with  those  of  the  river,  it  fell  headlong  over  a  precipice. 
Here  it  boiled  and  foamed  angrily  at  its  downfall,  but  at 
last  it  quietly  entered  the  broad  waters  of  the  river. 

To  the  northward,  winding  its  way  along  this  river's 
bank,  led  a  dim  trail.  Some  five  or  six  miles  up  the  river 
was  a  little  settlement.  Across  the  river  and  at  about  an 
equal  distance  to  the  southward,  was  a  town  located  about 
a  fort.     This  was  the  center  of  an  already  growing  trade. 

One  day,  more  than  a  hundred  yeai-s  ago,  -where  the  waters 
met,  two  little  children  were  ])la\ing  on  the  sandy  shore, 
not  far  from  the  northward  trail.  The  little  girl  was  making 
a  house  out  of  sand,  and  the  boy,  some  years  older,  was  try- 
ing to  make  a  boat  out  of  some  driftwood  which  he  had 
picked  up  on  the  shore  of  the  ri\  er.  A  short  distance  away 
their  mother  was  getting  the  inid-da\-  meal.  In  a  rough 
hut  built  of  boughs  were  piled  a  few  household  utensils 
and  the  scanty  furniture  to  be  placed  in  the  new  home. 
From  a  distance  in  the  woods  came  the  sound  of  a  woods- 
man's ax,  and  not  long  after  came  the  .sound  of  a   falling 

1 


2  COMMUNITY'  rivirs 

tree.  The  crash  told  that  a  clearing  was  being  made  in  the 
forest,  and  that  a  log  cabin  was  in  process  of  construction. 

On  the  bank  of  the  river,  near  where  the  children  were  at 
play,  could  be  seen  a  curious,  roughly-built,  flat-bottomed 
barge.  Just  as  the  sound  of  the  falling  tree  had  died 
away,  from  across  the  river  came  a  loud  call.  The  cry 
was  answered  by  some  one  in  the  forest,  and  there  soon 
appeared,  hurrying  toward  the  bank,  a  strong,  roughly-clad 
man,  the  wood-chopper.  As  he  hurried  toward  the  children 
they  begged  their  father  to  take  them  on  a  ride  across  in 
the  boat,  but  afraid  there  might  not  be  room  for  the  pas- 
sengers, the  father  was  forced  to  refuse.  He  pushed  off  the 
awkward,  flat-bottomed  boat,  and  jumping  in,  set  out  for 
the  opposite  shore,  where  some  one  was  waiting  to  be  fer- 
ried over.  Here,  then,  was  the  reason  for  this  first  settler 
on  this  spot.  He  was  going  to  be  a  ferryman  and  act  as 
a  link  to  connect  those  who  had  settled  farther  up  the  ri\'er 
with  those  who  had  settled  in  the  town  below. 

As  time  went  on,  the  settler  finished  the  cabin,  cleared 
away  a  large  portion  of  the  forest  and  established  a  good 
ferrying  business.  One  of  the  men  whom  he  had  ferried 
over  thought  he  saw  that  money  could  be  made  by  build- 
ing a  tavern  where  travelers  who  were  belated  could  stop 
for  the  night.  Thus  a  second  house  was  built  not  far  from 
the  first  one,  alongside  the  trail  that  led  to  the  north. 
On  a  busy  day  quite  a  number  of  people  could  be  found  at 
the  tavern,  waiting  either  for  their  meals  or  for  transfer  by 
the  ferry. 

Somewhat  later,  another  traveler  noticed  that  many  of 
the  horses  needed  shoes.  The  rough  trails  and  bad  roads 
worked  such  havoc  with  the  horses'  hoofs  and  the  wagons 
that  many  of  the  horses  and  the  few  heavy  wagons  needed 


TIIK    BKCilXXIXr,    OF   A    (COMMUNITY  3 

attention.  It  was  not  long  before  the  blaeksinith  with  the 
help  of  the  two  other  men  had  put  up  his  forge,  and  the 
merry  clang  of  the  anvil  resounded  through  the  woods.  A 
log  cabin  for  his  family  added  a  third  to  the  two  already 
built  near  tho  north  trail. 


A  Log  Cabin 


I'hoto  by  ('.  Etirl  Stibin 


This  is  a  buildiiiK  constructed  in  recent  years  but  built  like  that  of  the 
cabin  of  the  boy  and  sirl.  Note  how  the  logs  are  fitted  together,  and  the 
"chinking"  between  the  logs. 

One  day  one  of  the  travelers,  while  waiting  for  his  dimier, 
attracted  by  the  scolding  of  the  brook  as  it  fell  over  the  prec- 
ipice, took  a  walk  through  the  woods  to  the  spot  where  the 
stream  came  tumbling  down.  Far  sighted,  he  saw  what  a 
splendid  place  this  would  be  for  a  mill.  The  river  pro- 
vided an  easy  means  of  transportation  for  the  grain  to  be 
brought  either  up  or  down  the  river;   the  l)ro()k,  lu-  learned, 


4  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

never  ran  dry,  so  there  was  always  water  to  give  power  to 
the  mill.  Before  long  the  splashing  of  the  water  over  the 
water-wheel  and  the  whirring  of  the  millstones  were  added 
to  the  noises  of  the  forest,  and  a  fourth  cabin  was  built  near 
the  others  for  the  family  of  the  miller. 

The  new  families  that  had  come  to  the  river's  bank, 
brought  other  children  to  play  with  the  two  whom  we  have 
seen  by  the  northward  trail.  They  played  about  all  day 
long  or  helped  their  parents  as  they  were  able,  in  the  sim- 
pler tasks  of  the  home,  the  tavern,  or  the  mill.  These  first 
homes  were  busy  places.  Neither  father  nor  mother  had 
much  time  for  the  children.  Mother  had  to  make  clothes 
for  them,  from  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  the  yarn  to  the 
sewing  of  the  cloth.  Father  had  to  kill  the  animals  to 
furnish  the  leather  for  the  shoes  and  sometimes  for  the  boy's 
trousers.  Food  was  plentiful  if  one  took  time  to  hunt  or 
fish.  Grain  could  be  had  at  the  mill.  There  was  not  much 
chance  for  the  children  to  get  an  education.  But  as  the  father 
or  the  mother  had  time,  sometimes  during  the  long  winter 
evenings  before  the  fireplace,  sometimes  while  they  were  at 
work  during  the  long  summer  days,  they  usually  managed  to 
teach  the  children  to  read,  write  and  "  cipher." 

Several  years  passed,  and  many  new  homes  had  been 
added  to  the  first  ones.  A  little  settlement  had  sprung  up ; 
the  glowing  forge  sent  sparks  from  the  blacksmith's  shop ; 
a  shoemaker  visited  the  different  homes  at  stated  intervals ; 
a  store  offered  many  articles  for  sale ;  and  the  children  no 
longer  ran  at  large  through  the  settlement.  The  school- 
master had  come,  and  a  log  schoolhouse  had  been  built. 
The  children  were  in  school  only  part  of  the  winter  months, 
but  at  least  they  were  able  to  get  more  education  than  before 
the  coming  of  the  schoolmaster. 


TTTE    REOTNNINa    OF    A    COMMUNITY  5 

Sometime  with  in  tliis  period  a.  serious  erime  was  com- 
mitted in  tlie  little  community.  At  this  crisis  the  citizens 
met  toj>;ether  and  chose  one  of  their  numi)er  to  act  as  judge 
and  one  to  take  care  of  the  prisoner,  who  had  been  captured 
in  the  very  act  of  committin<jj  iiis  crime.  Several  of  the 
settlers  were  chosen  to  decide  as  to  the  guilt  of  the  prisoner 


Courtesy  of  RxUhcTfoTd  Hayner 


The  Van  Schaick  House 

This  was  the  home  of  one  of  the  early  Dutch  settlers.     It  was  built  so  well 
that  it  is  occupied  as  a  home  to-day. 

in  the  trial  which  followed,  and  the  one  who  presided  at  the 
trial  pronounced  sentence.  Here  was  the  beginning  of  gov- 
ernment as  we  know  it.  Later  other  settlers  came,  and 
officials  were  chosen  to  carry  on  the  governmental  business 
of  the  community.  Every  one  could  not  give  up  his  time  to 
attend  to  the  necessary  duties,  so  some  were  chosen  and 
paid  by  the  rest  of  the  community  to  do  what  was  needful. 


6  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

Not  many  houses  had  been  htiilt  before  paths  and  roads 
began  to  stretch  out  toward  different  points  of  the  compass. 
One  went  out  to  the  mill,  another  wandered  away  along  the 
river  following  the  old  trail  to  the  settlement  to  the  north- 
ward, and  yet  another  went  eastward  to  the  ferry.  It  was 
not  long  before  these  began  to  be  known  by  the  names  of 
Mill  Street,  Ili\'er  Street,  and  Ferry  Street,  and  houses  were 
built  on  each  side  of  them. 


Courtesy  of  Hon.  C.  L.  Carrier 
The  Main  Street  of  a  Small  Community 

Along  these  rough  roads  went  the  life  of  the  community. 
In  general  the  streets  followed  the  course  of  the  earlier 
paths.  Since  the  path  along  the  river  had  been  crooked. 
River  Street  was  crooked  too,  as  was  also  the  street  that 
followed  the  winding  path  along  the  hill  to  the  eastward. 
As  the  town  increased  in  size  it  became  necessary  to  name 
the  streets  and  number  the  houses  in  order  that  any  par- 
ticular house  might  be  found  easily.  In  this  manner  the 
pioneer  settlement  became  a  village  laid  out  in  regular  order. 


THE    BEGINNING   OF   A   COMMUNITY  7 

Many  coiniiumities  have  grown  up  as  did  the  one  we  have 
been  reaiUnj;  about.  Not  all  were  started  by  a  ferryman, 
but  the  beginnings  of  all  were  somewhat  alike.  There  was 
always  some  reason  for  the  founding  of  the  town.  Some 
were  often  founded  deliberately  —  New  York  was  founded  as  a 
trading  post.  Streets  were  named  from  some  peculiarity; 
for  example,  Wall  Street  in  New  York  City  was  named  from 
the  wall  which  shut  off  the  lower  part  of  the  city  from  the 
fields  above.  Division  Street  in  one  of  the  cities  of  the 
Hudson  \'alley  received  its  name  from  the  fact  that  it  marks 
a  division  of  the  farm  of  one  of  the  i)atro')ns.  Some  named 
their  streets  from  birds,  trees,  or  aninuds.  In  a  certain  city 
are  Quail,  Bobolink,  and  Robin  streets;  in  another  are 
Maple,  Hawthorn,  Pine  Woods,  and  Linden  avenues.  Other 
communities  named  their  streets  for  local  or  national 
celebrities  or  for  the  presidents.  In  some  of  the  newer 
towns  which  were  laid  out  by  a  surveyor,  the  streets  run- 
ning in  one  direction  are  numbered,  and  those  crossing  at 
right  angles  are  lettered,  as  in  the  capital  of  the  nation, 
Washington. 

W^e  shall  see  as  wx^  go  on  in  our  study  of  government, 
that  streets  are  of  great  importance  to  a  community.  (See 
Chapter  IV.)  It  is  along  these  streets  that  much  of  the  com- 
munity life  is  centered.  ]\Ian\'  of  the  laws  passed  have  to  do 
with  the  streets  and  the  protection  of  the  people  in  them. 

As  has  been  said  above,  a  large  j^roportion  of  the  different 
communities  of  our  country  ha\-e  been  begun  in  a  manner 
similar  to  the  one  about  which  nou  have  read.  Some  man 
brings  his  family  and  there  builds  his  house.  Others  are 
attracted,  and  after  a  time  a  connnunity  grows  up.  If  the 
situation  offers  exceptional  adxantages  for  commerce  or 
manufacturing,   a   city  may   grow   out   of   the   little   com- 


8 


COMMUNITY  CIVICS 


inunity.  The  questions  of  government,  which  are  so  simple 
among  the  few,  become  greater  as  the  town  increases  in  size. 
More  officials  need  to  be  appointed,  better  schools  have  to 
be  built,  children  have  to  be  taught  the  rules  of  communitv 


Courtesy  of  Rvlhcrford  Hayner 
The  Main  Street  uf  a  Lakger  Community 
Compare  this  jjicture  with  the  one  on  page  6. 

life,  and  all  the  complex  life  of  the  city  and  village  has  to  be 
taken  care  of. 

Young  people  have  their  part  in  the  solving  of  these  prob- 
lems, and  the  better  they  do  their  part  the  better  is  the  com- 
munity. That  community  is  the  best  in  which  the  children 
are  the  most  law-abiding.  If  respect  for  the  law  is  taught  to 
children,  when  they  arc  old  they  will  not  forget. 


THE    BEGINNING    OF   A    COMMUNITY  0 

To  be  law-ahidin.u:  does  not  mean  merely  a  long  list  of 
"don'ts  "  ;  for  we  shall  find  out  that  thiTe  are  just  as  many 
"do's"  as  there  are  "don'ts."  Not  only  this,  hut  young 
people  have  as  many  rights  as  they  have  duties.  As  many 
laws  are  passed  to  protect  the  rights  of  children  and  help 
them  to  be  law-abiding  citizens  as  are  passed  for  the  pro- 
tection and  help  of  older  people. 

Questions  ioh  Iwksticatiox 

1.  Who  were  tlu-  first  settlers  in  your  town?  Wliat  were  tlieir 
names?  Wiiy  did  they  come?  What  was  tlie  date  of  the  first  settle- 
ment of  the  town  ?     Of  what  nationahty  were  the  first  settlers  ? 

2.  What  Indian  tril)es  formerly  ocrupied  the  land  now  covered  by 
your  town?  How  do  you  know  they  used  to  live  about  tlie  location 
of  your  home  ? 

3.  Where  was  the  first  house  in  the  connuuriity^  located?  Of  what 
was  it  built  ? 

4.  What  were  some  of  the  reasons  that  caused  a  town  to  spring  np 
about  the  early  homes  of  your  counnunity  ? 

5.  Draw  a  map  of  your  town,  showing  its  chief  points  of  interest. 
If  you  live  in  a  large  community,  show  the  locaticm  of  the  principal 
industries,  chief  streets,  your  church,  school,  and  home. 

6.  Indicate  (m  yoiu-  map  points  where  you  think  improvements 
might  be  made  in  your  community. 

7.  Did  the  early  settlers  plan  for  a  beautiful  town,  survey  the  land 
for  regular  streets,  and  in  general  look  out  for  the  future  of  the  com- 
munity? What  is  there  in  the  conmumity  that  leads  you  to  your 
belief? 

S.    W'hat  occupations  did  the  founders  of  your  town  pursue? 

9.  Has  your  conununity  any  natural  resources?  Did  these  in- 
fluence the  early  settlement  or  the  growth  of  the  conununity? 

10.  Get  grandfather  or  grandmother  to  tell  you  any  stories  they 
may  have  heard  of  the  early  settlers. 

11.  If  you  are  a  newcomer  to  .\merica,  compare  tlic  tnwii  wliere 
you  now  live  with  the  one  from  which  you  came.  Whicli  do  you  i)re- 
fer?     Why? 

1  "  Community  "  as  used  in  these  problems  refers  to  the  town  or  city 
in  which  you  live. 


10  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

12.  What  are  the  names  of  some  of  the  streets  in  your  eoninumity  ? 
Why  did  they  receive  these  names? 

13.  Do  you  know  of  any  pictures  which  show  how  your  community 
looked  in  its  earlier  years?  Have  you  ever  seen  any  pictures  of  the 
early  settlers  ?     If  so,  describe  their  appearance  and  dress. 


CHAPTER  II 
THE   HOME,  THE   FAMILY.   AND   THE   COMMUNITY 

Life  in  the  colonial  home.  —  The  homes  of  the  boys  and 
girls  who  lived  in  the  cabins  of  whicli  you  have  read  in  tlie 
previous  chapter  were  much  different  from  any  that  you  find 
to-day.  They  were  made  of  logs  with  a  stone  or  "  corn 
cob  "  chimney.  There  was  no  floor  except  the  bare  earth 
pounded  hard,  or  if  the  famil\-  was  a  little  more  fortunate,  a 
floor  of  rough  planks  split  off  from  logs.  Such  a  home  gave 
little  chance  for  many  luxuries.  It  was  fortunate  if  it  had 
the  necessary  comforts.  To  give  shelter  from  the  rough 
storms  of  winter  was  all  that  was  necessary.  Some  of  the 
colonial  homes  scarcely  protected  their  inmates  from  the 
wild  animals  which  were  common  in  those  days.  Indeed, 
one  colonist  tells  the  story  that  one  night  he  was  awakened 
from  sleep  b>'  something  gnawing  at  his  head.  When  he 
•  investigated,  he  found  that  an  inquisitive  wolf  was  trying  to 
reach  him  as  he  lay  on  his  rough  bed  in  the  corner  of  the 
cabin,  by  sticking  its  nose  through  the  chinks  of  the  logs 
of  which  the  cabin  was  built.  These  cabins  were  cold  in 
winter ;  so  cold,  in  fact,  that  a  minister  tells  that  the  ink 
on  his  table  froze  while  he  was  writing  his  sermon,  although 
there  was  a  good  fire  in  the  big  fireplace. 

Work  in  the  colonial  home.  —  Although  the  homes  were 
very  different,  the  work  the  children  had  to  do  was  like  that 
of  many  boys  and  girls  of  to-day.     As  soon  as  the  children 

11 


12  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

were  old  enough,  they  helped  their  fathers  and  mothers 
with  the  work  of  the  farm  or  of  the  home.  The  boys,  as 
do  the  farm  boys  of  to-day,  helped  their  fathers  plow,  plant, 
and  reap  the  crops  after  they  had  cleared  the  land  of  the 
trees  native  to  it.  The  girls  spun,  wove,  and  made  the 
cloth  for  the  garments  of  the  household ;  they  helped  in  the 
cooking  of  the  food ;  they  knit  stockings  and  mittens,  and 
assisted  the  mother  in  any  way  that  they  could.  A  story 
is  told  of  one  girl  whose  brother  lost  his  mittens  while  chop- 
ping in  the  woods.  Determined  that  he  should  have  warm 
hands  while  he  did  his  work,  the  young  girl  carded  the  wool, 
spun  it  into  yarn,  and  knit  a  pair  of  double  mittens,  all  in 
twenty-four  hours. 

There  was  not  much  leisure  in  such  homes.  When  eve- 
ning came,  if  the  children  were  not  too  tired,  the  father  or  the 
mother  spared  a  few  minutes  to  teach  them  to  "  read,  write, 
and  cipher,"  all  the  education  the  majority  of  people  had  in 
those  days.  The  more  fortunate  went  to  school  for  a  few 
weeks  in  the  winter,  but  education  was  much  neglected. 
Many  of  the  earlier  colonists  could  only  "  make  their 
mark."  As  for  the  girls  it  was  not  considered  necessary 
that  they  know  how  to  read  or  write. 

The  great  advantage  of  colonial  times.  —  In  spite  of  the 
hard  life  and  the  many  discomforts  which  the  people  of  that 
day  had  to  undergo,  there  was  one  advantage ;  every  hoy 
and  girl  had  a  home.  It  may  not  have  been  as  good  a  home 
as  the  modern  one  but  at  least  each  had  a  place  which  might 
be  called  by  that  name.  Every  child  had  a  roof  to  cover  his 
head.  Every  one  had  some  place  he  could  call  his  own. 
In  fact,  until  homes  were  founded  no  colony  prospered. 
Virginia  was  a  failure  until  women  were  brought  to  the 
colony  in  1619,   as  wives  for  the  colonists.     New  France 


HOME,    FAMILY,    AND    COMMUNITY  13 

failed  until  Kinji;  Louis  sent  oxer  the  maids  of  France  to  found 
homes  in  that  lonely  land. 

To-day,  there  are  thousands  who  iia\e  no  home,  and 
many  homes  are  of  sueli  character  that  they  are  a  source  of 
peril  to  their  occupants  and  a  menace  to  those  whose 
homes  are  well  kept.  From  such  homes  children  are 
sometimes  driven  out  to  shift  for  themselves  on  the 
streets. 

The  home  the  beginning  of  government.  —  ^  astly  dif- 
ferent as  are  the  homes  of  to-day  from  the  colonial  homes 
—  for  there  could  not  be  a  greater  contrast  than  that  be- 
tween the  home  of  the  colonial  settler  and  the  ten-story 
apartment  house  of  a  large  city  —  yet  there  are  some  con- 
ditions which  were  the  same  then  as  now,  conditions  which 
are  the  same  in  many  respects  in  the  cabin  as  in  the  pal- 
ace. Let  us  see  what  these  similarities  are.  In  all  these 
homes,  children  first  come  in  contact  with  government. 
The  father  and  the  mother  are  the  heads  of  the  family,  they 
are  the  rulers  whose  laws  are  to  be  obeyed.  The  j)arents 
are  the  first  source  from  which  the  children  learn  obedience ; 
they  are  the  first  to  })ass  judgment  on  a  broken  law,  and  they 
are  the  ones  who  see  that  punishment  follows  a  brokcMi 
command.  Here  is  the  beginning  of  all  government,  and 
here  are  the  three  i)arts  into  which  all  government  is  divided. 
F'irst,  that  part  of  government  which  tells  us  what  to  do  by 
making  rules  or  laws,  or  the  legislative  department ;  second, 
that  part  of  the  goxcrmnent  which  explains  the  law  to  us, 
or  the  judicial  department ;  and  third,  that  j)art  of  the  gov- 
ernment which  sees  that  the  laws  are  obeyed  and  that  pun- 
ishment follows  the  breaking  of  a  law,  or  the  executive  de- 
partment. In  the  home  these  three  parts  of  government  are 
united  in  the  person  of  the  father  or  the  mother. 


14  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

In  the  well-conducted  home  of  to-day,  as  well  as  in  colonial 
times,  the  children  look  to  the  parents  for  protection  against 
harm.  Though  no  wild  animals  are  to  be  fought,  nor  dangers 
of  frontier  settlements  to  be  provided  against,  yet  there 
are  many  dangers  in  the  city  streets  and  on  the  farm.  (See 
Chapter  V.)  We  shall  see  later  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
parents  to  protect  the  inmates  of  the  home  from  disease  and 
sickness.  (See  Chapter  IV.)  It  is  their  duty  also  to  pro- 
tect them  from  immoral  conditions.  The  state  or  local 
authorities  are  very  insistent  on  these  duties. 

Powers  of  parents.  —  In  the  ages  long  ago,  the  father  of 
an  ancient  Roman  family  was  so  powerful  that  he  might 
even  condemn  his  children  to  death  if  they  broke  the  law 
and  he  considered  that  so  severe  a  punishment  was  neces- 
sary. Such  a  condition  of  affairs  would  seem  very  strange 
to  us  now,  for  much  of  the  control  of  the  children  has 
been  taken  from  the  parent  by  other  forms  of  government. 
The  state  to-day  fixes  the  punishment  to  be  given  if  the 
laws  of  the  community  or  the  state  are  broken  and  even 
decides  whether  a  law  breaker  shall  be  put.  to  death.  The 
colonial  boy  was  kept  obedient  by  the  rod.  "  Spare  the 
rod,  and  spoil  the  child,"  was  the  motto  of  the  colonial 
parent,  and  also  of  the  colonial  schoolmaster.  In  most 
of  the  homes  the  child  was  made  ready  to  be  a  law-abiding 
citizen  by  being  brought  up  to  be  obedient  to  the  laws  of 
the  home. 

At  the  present  time  it  is  too  often  the  case  that  the  chil- 
dren do  not  obey  the  parent-made  laws  but  become  a  law 
unto  themselves.  This  is  the  reason  why  so  many  children 
are  brought  before  the  police  courts,  or  the  children's  courts. 
This  is  the  reason  why  so  many  children  get  into  trouble. 
Lack  of  respect  for  home  laws  is  followed  by  lack  of  respect 


IIOMK,    FAMILY.    AXD    COMMLTXITV  15 

for  all  laws.  In  colonial  times  punishment  followed  dis- 
obedience. It  does  not  always  do  so  to-day,  and  children 
feel  tliiit  because  they  can  escai)e  the  punishment  of  tlie 
parents,  they  can  escape  tiie  i)unishnicnt  which  comes  when 
other  laws  are  broken. 

Rights  of  children.  —  The  children  in  the  colonial  home 
(rave  obedience  to  their  parents,  and  in  turn  were  protected 
by  them,  were  looked  after  when  ill,  were  punished  if  neces- 
sary, and  were  required  to  do  their  share  of  the  common 
duties.  Work  was  necessary  for  each  member  of  the 
family  since  there  were  few  hands  to  perform  the  numerous 
tasks  that  had  to  be  done.  Such  conditions  prevail  in 
many  modern  homes,  but  so  many  changes  have  taken 
place  that  home  life  has  been  much  altered.  During  the 
earlier  period  little  was  thought  of  the  rights  of  children, 
but  a  great  deal  was  tiiought  of  their  duties. 

Peoi)le  who  have  studied  such  matters,  have  learned  that 
present  conditions  make  the  rights  of  children  the  more 
important  of  the  two  questions.  Children  have  their  rights 
in  the  home  as  well  as  the  parents,  and  the  majority  of  the 
laws  that  are  passed  concerning,  children  have  to  do  with 
the  protection  of  these  rights. 

Boys  and  girls  have  the  right  to  an  education,  though 
some  ignorant  parents  do  not  think  so  and  have  to  be  forced 
to  send  their  children  to  school.  Some  parents  are  so  old 
fashioned  that  they  think  that  the  education  they  received 
fifty  years  ago  is  good  enough  for  the  present.  They  do  not 
realize  that  the  world  has  j)rogressed  during  the  years  that 
have  gone  by,  and  that  an  uneducated  person  is  handicapped 
in  the  race  of  life.  They  do  not  realize  that  an  ignorant 
person  is  a  dangerous  one  and  is  pretty  sure  to  become  a 
menace  to  the  community.     (See  Chapter  III.) 


IG 


COMMUNITY    CIVICS 


Dangkks  of  the  City  Stkeets 


TTOME,    FAMILY.    AXD    COMMUNfTY 


17 


I..S  lhr,iUi/ll  Courhsi/  al  .s.,,W,v  In.htuU    ,.J   Am, 

DwcEus  OF  THE  City  Streets 
A  series  of  piituivs  .showiii;;  results  <jf  carelessness  in  using  a  street. 


1.S 


roM.\rrxiTY  nvics 


Children  Imve  the  right  to  wholesome  surroundings,  the 
right  to  be  brought  up  under  healthful  and  moral  condi- 
tions. In  short,  children  have  the  same  rights  as  grown 
persons,  rights  that  are  gi\en  them  by  the  document  which 
is  the  basis  of  oiu-  government,  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States.  (See  Chapter  XXV.)  Among  other  things 
this  gives  to  all  the  right  of  personal  security. 


i/rli.<:i/  of  riuthcrford  HayncT 


A  Street  of  Fine  Homes 


Children  have  the  right  to  play.  If  cities  take  away 
from  them  the  right  of  playing  on  the  street,  the  right  of 
sliding  down  some  hill  in  the  community,  it  is  only  fair  that 
they  should  be  pro^'ided  with  a  park  or  a  playground. 
Many  thousands  of  dollars  are  spent  by  municipalities  for 
this  pur])ose.  The  subject  of  recreation  will  be  considered 
further  in  a  later  chapter.     (See  Chapter  VI.) 

When  parents  do  not  grant  children  the  rights  which  are 
theirs,  government,  either  local  or  state,  may  step  in  and 
force  the  i)arents  to  grant  them.     If  this  does  not  secure 


IIOMK,    FAMILY,    AXD    COMMUNITY  19 

results,  government  may  go  a  step  further,  and  remove 
children  from  the  care  of  such  parents  and  place  them  where 
they  may  grow  up  under  proper  surroundings. 

The  right  that  parents  formerly  had  over  their  children 
has  been  limited  by  the  state.  The  parent  has  not  the  power 
of  punishment  that  he  had  in  former  times.  This  does  not 
mean  that  he  may  not  punish  at  all  if  there  is  need,  but  that 
he  may  not  be  cruel  in  his  punishment.  Formerly  his  power 
was  practically  unlimited.  To-day  if  a  parent  inflicts  a 
cruel  punishment  on  a  child,  the  law  steps  in,  and  the  parent 
is  severely  punished  by  fine  or  even  imprisonment.  I'or- 
nierly,  the  parents  of  many  children  felt  that  they  were  en- 
titled to  any  wages  received  by  their  children.  Because 
of  this,  children  were  put  to  work  at  a  very  early  age,  and 
were  often  cruelly  treated.  The  law  has  put  a  stop  to  this 
in  most  of  the  states  of  the  nation,  though,  sad  to  say,  in 
some  states  children  of  very  tender  age  are  permitted  to 
work  in  factories  and  mines,  and  the  parents  have  control 
of  all  that  they  earn.     (See  Tliapter  XIII.) 

Duties  of  children  —  obedience.  —  As  we  go  farther 
along  in  this  book,  we  shall  find  that  every  right  that  a 
citizen  has  is  joined  to  a  duty.  In  this  manner  the  rights  of 
children  are  connected  with  their  duties.  One  of  the  most 
important  of  these  duties  is  that  of  obedience.  This  means 
obedience  not  only  to  the  laws  of  the  home  and  of  the  school, 
but  also  to  the  laws  that  government  makes  —  the  laws 
j)assed  by  the  locality,  the  state,  and  the  nation.  Of  course 
the  first  obedience  due  is  that  given  to  parents.  The  boy 
or  girl  who  is  dishonest  with  a  parent  is  not  \ery  apt  to 
become  a  good  citizen.  We  obey  parents  because  they  are 
older  than  we  are,  and  because  they  know  better  than  we 
do,  the  things  that  shoukl  be  done.     In  the  ancient  law  given 


20  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

to  Moses  oil  the  Mount,  which  we  know  as  tlie  Ten  Coni- 
inandments,  the  first  commandment  with  a  promise  attached 
to  it  for  its  fulfillment,  is  that  one  which  says,  "  Honor  thy 
father  and  mother,  that  thy  days  may  be  long  in  the  land 
which  the  Lord  thy  God  giveth  thee." 

Duty  of  service.  —  In  the  home  we  find  not  only  the 
beginnings  of  government,  but  also  the  beginning  of  that 
ser\'ice  for  others  which  must  be  performed  by  and  by,  by 
all  those  who  wish  to  become  good  citizens.  The  home 
is  a  factory  in  which  good  citizens  are  made.  As  they  are 
made  here,  so  they  will  be  when  they  grow  up.  In  the 
home  are  begun  those  relationships  with  others  which 
form  the  basis  of  all  later  actions.  Here  we  learn  how  to 
protect  our  loved  ones  as  well  as  to  be  protected  by  them. 
This  protection  is  gWen  not  only  to  parents,  for  we  shall 
see  later  that  we  do  protect  them  (see  Chapter  V),  but  also 
to  the  other  members  of  the  family  with  whom  we  come  in 
contact.  In  many  of  the  large  cities  where  people  are  closely 
crowded  together  and  there  is  much  poverty,  mothers  can- 
not give  the  attention  to  the  smaller  ones  of  the  family 
that  they  would  wish  to  give.  Here  are  found  the  "  little 
mothers  "  and  the  "little  fathers."  These  are  the  children 
who  take  care  of  their  baby  brothers  and  sisters  when  the 
mothers  and  fathers  have  to  work  and  do  not  have  time 
to  care  for  them  themselves.  Unfortunately  the  "  little 
mothers  "  and  the  "  little  fathers  "  are  often  in  need  of  as 
much  help  and  protection  as  the  babies  themselves.  To 
look  out  for  them,  kindly  societies  have  been  formed  which 
try  to  help  tiiose  whose  little  ones  need  care  while  the  parents 
are  at  work. 

We  have  seen  how  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  cabins  in  the 
woods  helped  their  fathers  and   mothers  by  actual   hard 


HOME,    FAMILY,    AND    COMMUNITY  21 

work  in  winning  a  home  I'rom  the  siirroiiiidiiiifs  in  wliicli  they 
were  placed.  Altli()U<;li  such  work  is  not  asked  of  eiiildren 
to-day,  there  are  many  ways  in  which  the  children  may  hel[) 
in  i\\v  home.  'i\)-(kiy,  in  adchtioii  to  actual  labor  ^i\'en  in 
the  iiome,  help  means  also  to  assist  the  parents  in  obeying 
the  hiws  of  the  connnunity  in  which  the  home  is  placed. 
Perhaps  you  are  wondering;  how  you  can  help  father  and 
mother  obey  the  law  ;ind  thus  be  good  citizens?  Let  us 
look  into  this.  Remember  that  the  jjarents  are  the  ones  who 
are  held  res})()nsible  if  children  break  the  laws.  If  boys  and 
girls  permit  rubbish  to  collect  about  the  home  so  that  disease 
is  spread,  if  a  fire  starts  because  cliildren  j)la>  with  matches 
or  build  an  election  bonfire  and  do  not  take  care  of  it,  the 
parents  are  the  ones  who  are  held  responsible  for  the  damage 
that  may  ensue.  If  the  school  attendance  law  is  broken, 
the  parents  may  be  taken  to  court  as  well  as  the  children.  If 
l)oys  play  ball  in  the  street  and  a  window  is  broken,  the 
{)arent  has  to  pay  for  it.  So  we  see  that  if  children  are 
obedient  to  the  laws  of  the  community  and  do  not  get  into 
trouble,  they  are  performing  a  real  service  both  to  their 
parents  and  to  the  connnunity. 

Duty  of  though tfulness.  —  Another  duty  is  that  of 
thoughtfuiness  for  the  rights  of  others.  We  may  be  obedient 
and  also  give  service,  but  if  some  thought  and  care  are  not 
given  to  the  performance  of  such  duties,  we  are  not  perform- 
ing these  duties  in  the  right  way.  It  is  the  one  who  does 
his  duty  with  thouglit  and  care  who  becomes  the  best  citi- 
zen. It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  we  are  not  alone  in  the 
world.  Other  people  have  the  same  rights  that  we  have. 
If  people  are  selfish  and  not  thoughtful  of  the  rights  of 
others,  trouble  and  confusion  arise.  When  boys  and  girls 
play  games  in  the  streets,  it  is  this  thoughtlessness  that 


22  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

causes  trouble ;    we  shall  see  later  how  this  conflicts  with 
others'  rights.     (See  Chapter  VI.) 

Duty  of  industry.  —  Be  industrious.  The  industrious 
person  is  one  who  is  busy  all  the  while  and  therefore  has 
no  time  for  interfering  with  the  rights  of  others.  If  a  boy 
or  girl  spends  the  day  in  school  whispering  and  wasting  the 
time,  not  only  is  the  time  which  belongs  to  himself  wasted, 
but  also  that  which  belongs  to  those  about  him  whose  at- 
tention he  attracts.  One  may  be  just  as  good  a  citizen  in 
school  as  though  grown  up  or  having  the  privilege  of  voting. 
The  home  where  industry  is  evident  is  likely  to  be  a  good 
home.  It  may  not  have  much  money,  but  it  has  in  it  that 
which  gives  strength  and  character  to  a  community  whether 
it  be  large  or  small. 

Other  marks  of  good  citizenship.  —  The  performance  of 
duties  which  are  joined  to  the  rights  of  citizens  and  which 
are  found  in  the  home  first  of  all  is  one  mark  of  a  good 
citizen.  As  we  proceed  in  our  study  of  the  activities  of 
government  we  shall  find  that  there  are  many  other 
demands  on  every  one  who  would  perform  the  duties  of 
good  citizenship.  In  addition  to  those  named  above,  we 
may  add  taking  care  of  one's  health,  courage  without  fool- 
hardiness,  thrift,  courtesy,  ability  to  assume  responsibility, 
promptness,  honesty,  and  loyalty.  All  these  are  marks  of  a 
good  citizen. 

Laws  that  govern  the  home.  —  The  laws  that  are  passed 
for  our  help  and  instruction  in  becoming  good  citizens, 
and  that  take  care  of  us  in  our  homes,  are  not  all  the  safe- 
guards we  have.  Laws  are  made  to  tell  us  what  kinds 
of  homes  we  may  live  in  and  even  place  restrictions  on  the 
kinds  of  homes  that  may  be  built. 
As  cities  grew  uj)  and  densely  populated  centers  developed, 


HOME,    FAMILY,    AND    COMMUXITY 


23 


honu"  conditions  changed.  So  packed  tof^cther  did  the 
])coj)lc  become  that  very  bad  health  conditions  resulted. 
The  foreigners  who  came  to  this  country  were  not  ac- 
customed to  the  way  people  lixcd  here.  They  began  to 
Hock    together    into    districts    by    themselves.     Here    they 


A    MOUKIJN    iI(JME 


I'lidiii  hi/  II'.  .1.  aitnn 


Make  a  list  of  the  ways  in  wliich  government  sujiervises  the  huilding  of 

such  a  home. 


could  hear  their  own  language  spoken,  keep  their  own  cus- 
toms, and  follow  somewhat  the  same  life  they  had  pursued 
in  the  land  from  which  they  came. 

These  methods  of  lixing,  in  many  cases,  were  \er.\  bad. 
It  is  proper,  under  suitable  conditions,  to  ha\e  cows  and 
pigs  and  chickens,  but  it  is  not  proi)er  to  ha\e  them  in  the 
house  where  people  live.  Because  the  immigrant  had  done 
this  in  his  own  countr\',  he  did  it  here.     Children  and  animals 


24  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

often  lived  together  in  the  same  room.  American  citizens 
do  not  do  these  things,  but  it  was  a  long  time  before  such 
customs  were  stopped.  The  foreigners  who  came  to  the  new 
country  had  never  heard  of  modern  sanitary  arrangements; 
until  the  law  put  a  stop  to  it,  they  disregarded  the  rights  of 
others  to  such  an  extent  that  the  health  of  the  public  was 
in  danger.  In  a  book  called  "  The  Peril  and  the  Preserva- 
tion of  the  Home,"  is  shown  the  picture  of  a  bathtub  hang- 
ing down  into  a  back  alley  from  a  window.  Because  the 
rooms  were  so  small,  this  was  the  only  place  to  keep  it,  aild  it 
was  the  only  bathtub  on  the  block.  Landlords,  too,  took  ad- 
^•antage  of  the  ignorance  of  the  immigrant,  and  asked  ex- 
tortionate rents  for  very  poor  accommodations.  The  new- 
comers were  poor,  and  to  make  both  ends  meet  and  to  be 
able  to  pay  the  rent  the  landlord  asked,  boarders  were  taken 
in.  In  some  tenement  bedrooms  the  beds  were  never  empty, 
those  who  worked  at  night  giving  up  the  bed  to  those  who 
worked  during  the  day. 

Here  are  some  of  the  conditions  in  the  homes  mentioned 
above.  "  Gotham  Court  "  (in  New  York  City)  stood 
until  recently  almost  on  the  identical  spot  where  George 
Washington  lived  when  he  was  the  first  President  of  this 
Republic.  When  a  census  of  the  court  was  made  some 
years  before  it  was  demolished,  one  hundred  and  forty-two 
families  were  found  living  there.  "  Out  of  such  condition.s 
came  little  Antonia,  stripped  by  an  inhuman  step-mother 
and  beaten  with  a  red-hot  poker  until  her  body  was  a  mass 
of  burns  and  bruises.  The  step-mother  went  to  jail,  but  we 
still  have  need  of  the  Children's  Society  that  has  thrown  a 
watchful  and  strong  arm  around  more  than  one  hundred 
thousand  little  ones  in  the  slum  where  the  home  has  been 
wrecked."     In  a  typical  tenement  house  on  the  East  Side 


HOME,    FAMILY,    AND    rOMMUXlTY  25 

in  New  York  where  the  Court  above  mentioned  was  located, 
Mr.  Hiis  says  "  there  were  two  thousand  seven  hundred 
iind  eiglity-one  persons  livin<j,  lour  liun(h-ed  and  sixty-six 
of  them  babies  in  arms.  There  were  four  himdred 
and  forty-one  (hirk  rooms  with  no  windows  at  all,  and  six 
hundred  and  thirty-five  rooms  that  opened  on  the  air  shaft." 
The  battle  with  the  slum.  —  When  such  conditions  as 
these  came  to  the  attention  of  good  citizens,  is  it  any  wonder 
that  then  began  the  "battle  with  the  slum"?  Patriotic 
and  philanthr()i)ic  people  began  to  fight  for  laws  which 
would  put  an  end  to  such  horrible  conditions.  To-day 
they  have  met  with  a  great  measure  of  success.  Xo  one 
can  build  a  home  for  rental  unless  he  pays  attention  to  the 
laws  which  have  been  passed  to  make  that  home  comfort- 
able and  sanitary  and  a  place  fit  to  live  in.  Tenements 
that  may  prove  to  be  fire-traps  may  no  longer  be  built ; 
proper  conditions  of  light  and  ventilation  must  be  supplied; 
there  must  be  proi)er  li\ing  conditions. 

Importance  of  the  home.  —  So  im])()rtant  is  the  home  as  the 
basis  of  government  that  some  states  have  passed  laws 
which  permit  local  units  of  the  state  to  i)ay  a  poor  widow 
with  children  a  sum  of  money  for  the  support  of  those  chil- 
dren, that  she  may  not  be  obliged  to  send  them  to  an  institu- 
tion. The  state  has  at  last  learned  that  it  is  better  to  keep 
the  home  together  than  it  is  to  have  it  broken  uj).  It  has 
begun  to  understand  that  the  remedy  for  crime  is  a  clean 
and  comfortable  home,  and  that  to  produce  such  a  result  an 
outlay  of  thought  is  better  than  an  outlay  of  money  ;  laws 
have  been  passed  to  take  care  of  the  health  of  the  home; 
institutions  have  l)een  founded  by  jniblic-spirited  citizens 
and  by  local  authorities  to  take  care  of  the  sick  and  help- 
less.    (See  Chapter  XI.) 


26  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

How  government  comes  into  the  home.  —  Early  in  the 
morning  the  milkman  leaves  at  your  city  home  your  daily 
supply  of  milk.  If  you  are  fortunate  enough  to  have  cows  of 
your  own,  you  will  know  that  in  order  to  sell  the  milk  it  must 
be  of  a  certain  quality.  If  you  buy  your  milk  of  the  milkman, 
he  must  ha\e  it  examined  to  see  that  it  is  clean  and  free 
from  harmful  germs,  and  that  it  has  a  proper  amount  of  nour- 
ishment in  it.  Your  local  government  looks  after  this,  send- 
ing out  inspectors  who,  under  the  orders  of  the  local  health 
officers,  attend  to  these  duties.  (See  Chapter  IV.)  Your 
breakfast  eaten  and  your  milk  drunk,  you  go  to  school. 
If  you  do  not,  the  truant  officer  will  be  after  you.  This 
is  the  state  go\ernment  coming  to  your  home.  (See 
Chapter  III.)  On  the  way  to  the  building  where  school  is 
held  you  see  the  postman  or  the  rural  free  delivery  man. 
Through  them  the  national  go^'ernment  is  entering  the  home. 
(See  Chapter  VIII.)  ]\Iany  such  examples  might  be  given  to 
show  that  the  home  is  the  center  toward  which  all  govern- 
ment leads.  When  the  home  is  destroyed  government  is 
destroyed.  That  is  the  reason  why  the  home  is  guarded  so 
carefully.  One  of  the  reasons  why  war  is  so  greatly  dreaded 
is  because  it  breaks  up  the  foundations  of  government  by 
destroying  the  home. 

A  community.  —  It  may  be  well  for  us  at  this  place  to 
learn  what  a  community  is.  It  has  been  defined  as  "a 
group  of  people  living  together  in  a  given  locality,  bound 
to  one  another  by  common  interests,  and  subject  to 
common  laws."  With  such  a  definition  it  at  once  be- 
comes plain  that  all  of  us  are  members  of  more  than  one 
community. 

There  are  five  of  these  fundamental  relationships :  the 
home,  the  school,  the  church,  go\ernment,  and  industry. 


HOME,    FAMILY.    AND   COMMUNITY 


27 


Government  m;i\  refer  to  town,  eonnty,  state,  or  nation. 
Yet,  according  to  onr  definition,  all  these  relationships  are 
those  of  a  community,  for  th(>  people  living  in  all  these 
divisions  are  hound  together  hy  common  interests  and  are 
subject  to  common  laws. 

As  we  read  on  we  shall  see  that  the  government  of  these 
communities  is  simply  the  government  of  the  home  trans- 


What  War  Duk.s  to  Humes 

Peronne,  France,  completely  wrecked  in  the  World  War.      In  the  distance 
is  the  citadel,  which  was  used  as  a  prison. 

ferred  to  a  larger  field.  There  are  more  officials,  and  the 
government  becomes  more  complicated  as  it  takes  in  more 
activities,  but  we  shall  find  that  the  three  essential  parts 
of  government,  the  executive,  legislative,  and  judicial  de- 
partments, are  still  to  be  found,  no  matter  what  eoinmunity 
we  studv.  We  shall  also  find  that  laws  are  made  for  the 
same  purpose  as  in  the  home,  for  the  help  of  the  individual. 


28  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

Membership  in  any  or  all  of  these  commnnities  has  a 
meaning.  First,  in  the  community  we  satish'  our  desires 
and  purposes  through  cooperation.  That  community  is 
most  successful  whose  members  cooperate  most  closely. 
Second,  membership  in  the  community  places  an  obligation 
upon  us  to  contribute  to  common  ends.  If  all  do  not  obey 
the  laws  set  for  their  guidance,  health  may  be  endangered  and 
disease  spread.  If  some  contribute  nothing  to  industry, 
the  community  suffers.  ]\Iembership  in  a  community  lays 
a  heavy  responsibility  upon  us.  The  manner  in  which  we 
shoulder  these  responsibilities  indicates  the  character  of  our 
citizenship. 

In  the  home  first,  then  in  the  school,  which  is  planned  to 
cultivate  intelligence  and  character;  in  the  church,  which 
trains  the  religious  and  moral  life ;  in  government,  which 
conserves  the  common  rights  and  obligations  of  every  citizen  ; 
in  the  vocation,  which  gives  to  every  one  a  chance  not  only 
to  earn  a  living  but  to  contribute  useful  service ;  and  in 
various  helpful  societies,  like  the  Boy  Scouts  and  the  Girl 
Scouts,  are  found  opportunities  for  growth  and  service  which 
mark  the  useful  citizen  and  the  man  or  woman  of  high  moral 
standard. 

Questions  for  Investigation 

1.  Are  there  any  so-called  tenement  districts  in  your  community? 
What  can  be  done  to  remedy  defects  in  them '! 

2.  Do  the  majority  of  the  people  about  you  own  their  own  homes? 
Compare  the  sections  where  the  people  own  their  own  homes  and  those 
where  they  do  not,  and  draw  some  conclusions.  Do  you  think  a  person 
should  own  his  own  home  rather  than  rent  one  ?     Wliy  ? 

3.  What  are  some  of  the  ways  in  which  you  can  helj)  to  make  your 
home  pleasant? 

4.  In  what  ways  do  good  homes  promote  good  citizenship  ? 

5.  What  advantages  do  you  enjoy  from  having  a  good  home,  which 
those  who  do  not  have  one  cannot  enjoy  ? 


IIO.MK.    FAMILY,    AND    COMMUNITY  20 

(").  Why  slionlil  we  try  to  licantil'y  our  lionics,  hotli  iiisidf  niid  oiit- 
si«l.-r 

7.  What  (l('tV<'ts  can  you  src  in  the  homes  of  your  <'oiiiiiniiiity,  and 
how  can  those  he  remedied? 

(S.  Does  your  community,  tlirou^h  its  local  jjovernment  or  through 
local  societies,  offer  prizes  for  the  heautifyiiif,^  of  the  homes  of  the  com- 
munity ? 

0.  Observe  whether  your  family  depends  upon  itself  for  its  needs,  or 
whether  it  depends  on  other  homes. 

10.  WHiy  is  the  statement,  "  He  is  a  good  neighbor,"  a  good  recom- 
mendation for  anyone? 

11.  If  you  could  l)uild  just  such  a  home  as  you  would  wish,  what  are 
some  of  the  things  you  would  plan  for? 

12.  What  are  some  of  the  laws  passed  by  your  local  or  state  go\-ern- 
ments  for  the  protection  and  help  of  your  home? 

13.  Give  examples,  other  than  those  mentioned  in  the  text,  of  the 
ways  in  which  government  officials,  local,  state,  and  national,  come  to 
your  home. 

14.  (rive  examples  of  what  the  war  with  Germany  did  to  destroy 
homes. 

15.  List  five  things  a  citizen  should  avoid  in  buihling  a  house. 

16.  Make  a  list  of  ten  ])oints  to  be  (;onsidered  in  deciding  whether 
a  house  is  a  desirable  or  an  undesirable  one  for  tenancy. 


CHAPTER  III 
EDUCATION 

As  we  have  learned  in  a  previous  chapter  (see  Chapter  II) 
the  children  of  colonial  times  did  not  have  much  chance 
to  get  an  education.  A  little  of  the  three  "  r's,"  "  reading, 
'riting,  and  'rithmetic,"  and  sometimes  some  of  the  three 
"  s's,"  "  speaking,  spelling,  and  spanking,"  comprised  the 
education  of  the  majority  of  colonial  children.  As  the  settle- 
ment grew  and  more  children  came  into  the  neighborhood, 
the  first  place  that  was  built  for  common  use  was  the  school, 
and  often  the  same  building  was  used  for  a  church. 

Government  and  early  schools.  —  Government  early 
took  a  hand  in  helping  education,  for  only  twelve  years 
after  the  founding  of  Massachusetts  the  lawmaking  body 
of  the  colony  passed  a  law  which  provided  that  the  children 
of  each  town  should  be  taught  the  principles  of  religion 
and  the  laws  of  the  country  (the  first  lessons  in  govern- 
ment), and  the  officials  must  be  sure  that  the  children  were 
put  to  some  useful  work.  All  this  might  be  done  in  the 
home.  Some  five  years  later  the  same  legislature  passed  a 
law  providing  that  schools  should  be  established  in  every 
township  of  fifty  householders.  The  reason  given  for  such 
a  law  was  that  "  it  being  one  chief  project  of  that  old  de- 
luder  Satan  to  keep  men  from  the  knowledge  of  the  scrip- 
tures," children  should  receive  some  education,  so  that  the 
"  old    deluder "    might    be    beaten,    and   "  learning   might 

30. 


kducation:  31 

not  hv  buried  in  the  i,M-a\i'  of  our  fathers  in  tlic  cluu-cli  and 
conHuonwealth."  If  parents  did  not  heed  this  law,  they 
were  brought  before  the  niagistnites  and  reprox'ed  for  neg- 
lecting their  duty.  This  was  the  first  compulsory  educa- 
tion law. 

Support  of  early  schools.  —  The  schools  which  were 
founded  in  these  early  days  were  supported  in  various  ways. 
Sometimes  ])art  of  the  money  was  gi\en  by  the  well-to-do 
of  the  comnHuiity  ;  part  of  the  support  came  from  land  set 
aside  for  the  purpose ;  part  came  from  the  mone\'  paid  for 
the  teaching  of  subjects  in  the  schools ;  and  part  from  the 
taxes  paid  by  the  connnunity.  Usually  all  these  means 
were  necessary  to  raise  an  amount  sufficient  to  pay  the  ex- 
pense's of  the  school.  Here  are  some  of  the  fees  paid  — 
four  pence  for  "  such  as  are  in  the  primer  and  other  Kng- 
lisli  books,  and  six  pence  a  week  to  learn  accid(Mice  (Latin 
Crrammar),  wrighting  and  casting  accounts." 

Early  teachers.  —  Such  schools  were  sometimes  taught 
by  men  whom  we  should  call  ill-trained  and  ignorant.  The 
schoolmaster  usually  had  some  other  business  i)y  which  he 
helped  to  make  his  li\ing.  (icorge  Washington's  school- 
master was  a  white  bond  sla\'c  who  acted  as  sexton  of  the 
church  and  now  and  then  dug  a  gra\c.  His  next  teacher 
was  an  ignorant  man,  and  young  Washington  "  failed  to 
acquire  either  correct  si)elling  or  the  commonest  rules  of 
English  grammar." 

Here  is  a  picture  of  an  old-time  schoolmaster.  TT(>  wore  a 
three-cornered  hat.  "  His  coat  descended  in  long  square 
skirts  quite  to  the  calves  of  his  legs.  lie  had  on  nankeen 
small  clothes  [knee  breeches],  white  silk  stockings,  paste 
knee  and  shoe  buckles.  His  waistcoat  [vest]  was  of  yellow 
embossed   silk.     The   sleeves  and   skirts  of   his  coat   were 


32  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

garnished  with  rows  of  silver  buttons.  lie  wore  ruffled 
cuffs.  Under  his  hat  appeared  a  gray  wig  falhng  in  rolls 
over  his  shoulders.  He  had  on  a  pair  of  tortoise-shell 
glasses.  A  golden  headed  cane  was  thrust  under  his  arm." 
How  does  this  schoolmaster  compare  with  your  teacher  or 
your  principal  ? 

If  a  community  could  not  afford  a  schoolmaster,  there 
was  usually  some  poor  woman  who  could  teach  the  chil- 
dren their  letters,  and  perhaps  their  "  manners."  A  school 
so  taught  was  called  a  "dame"  school.  Children  were 
taught  to  make  their  "  manners  "  to  their  teachers,  their 
parents,  and  others  to  w^hom  they  should  show  respect. 
This  consisted  of  a  respectful  bow  by  the  boys  and  the 
dropping  of  a  courtesy  by  the  girls. 

An  early  school.  —  If  you  could  go  to  one  of  these  early 
schools  you  would  find  it  very  different  from  the  one  ^'ou  at- 
tend. The  school  houses  were  built  of  logs.  Sometimes 
they  had  a  floor  of  rough  boards,  but  more  often  there  was 
"  just  the  bare  earth  which  the  children's  feet  soon  rendered 
very  dusty.  On  occasion  the  youngsters'  feet  would  stir 
up  the  dust  in  clouds  to  annoy  the  teacher,  and  amuse  their 
fellows."  The  desks  were  made  of  rough  boards  fastened 
to  the  wall  about  three  feet  from  the  ground.  Rude  benches 
served  as  seats.  The  pupils  sat  with  their  faces  to  the  wall, 
the  little  ones  near  the  teacher.  When  recitation  time 
came,  they  marched  up  in  front  of  the  teacher.  If  the  floor 
was  of  boards,  they  "  toed  a  crack  "  that  the  line  might  be 
straight,  and  recited  their  lessons.  In  many  cases  the  win- 
dows were  made  of  oiled  paper,  for  glass  was  too  expensive 
or  too  difficult  to  get.  There  were  no  blackboards,  no 
pencils,  and  very  little  paper.  The  lucky  boy  had  a  "  plum- 
met "  made  of  lead,  sometimes  fashioned  into  a  little  toma- 


EDUCATION  33 

hawk,  and  with  this  marks  could  Ix'  made.  The  usual  writ- 
inti;  material  was  a  (|uill  pen  and  ink.  The  earhcr  schools 
were  lioatcd  by  a  hrephice.  Tlic  wo(«l  was  <!:recn  and  smoked 
badly,  for  the  poorest  was  given  to  the  school.  Some- 
times the  fire  went  out  entirely,  and  school  was  then  dis- 
missed for  the  day,  as  the  room  became  so  cold  that  it  was 
impossible  to  keep  warm  until  another  fire  could  be  built. 
'iVxtbooks  were  few  and  were  cai'cfully  kept,  that  tlic\' 
mi<;ht  be  handed  down  from  one  f>eneration  to  another. 

Discipline  in  an  early  school.  —  Discipline  was  severe. 
If  the  master  could  not  "  lick  "  the  big  boys  who  came  to 
school  during  the  winter  term,  he  could  not  hold  his  posi- 
tion, since  the  boys  might  pick  him  uyi  and  throw  him  out 
of  the  window  into  a  snow  bank.  \Vhi])j)ings  were  fre- 
quent. In  one  of  the  schools  in  Massachusetts  a  whipping- 
post was  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  sclioolroom  floor,  and 
tied  to  this,  the  pu))ils  were  .soundly  flogged.  Ev'en  boys 
in  coUegy  were  pul)licly  whii)ped.  Boys  and  girls  who 
whispered  had  short  sticks  like  the  bit  of  a  horse's  bridle 
])lace(l  in  their  mouths  and  tied  by  strings  to  the  back  of 
the  head.  This  very  eh'ectually  stoi)ped  the  practice. 
Parents  did  not  feel  that  their  children  'vere  getting  the 
proper  amount  of  education  if  the  master  did  not  inter- 
sperse their  lessons  with  a  large  number  of  whippings. 

Advanced  schools.  —  As  time  went  on,  more  advanced 
schools  or  "  academies,"  were  founded,  where  boys  c-oul  1 
learn  Latin  and  Greek.  It  was  not  thought  necessary  that 
girls  should  be  able  to  do  more  than  read.  Only  about  one 
in  twelve  of  the  women  during  the  time  of  our  Re\()luti.)nary 
war  could  sign  their  names.  The  academy  was  a  school  to 
which  the  wealthier  parents  sent  their  boys  that  they  might 
get  enough  education  to  enter  college.     The  earlier  colleges 


34  COMMUNITY    OIVTC!^ 

prepared  their  students  for  the  ministry,  though  they  did 
not  gi\e  as  much  real  education  as  the  high  schools  of  to- 
day. 

Progress  of  schools.  —  As  the  country  grew  and  new  com- 
munities sprang  up,  the  conditions  which  prevailed  in  the 
early  schools  spread  with  the  advance  of  the  settlements. 
At  the  time  Lincoln  went  to  school  the  conditions  which 
were  common  in  the  colonies  were  common  in  Illinois.  Lin- 
coln had  \ery  little  actual  schooling,  and  the  story  of  his 
study  by  the  light  of  the  fireplace,  and  how  he  used  the 
clean  side  of  a  shingle  to  figure  on,  is  known  to  every  boy 
and  girl.  Not  until  very  recent  years  have  the  rough  condi- 
tions about  which  you  have  read  been  entirely  done  away 
with.  In  the  older  settlements,  as  civilization  advanced 
and  people  became  more  prosperous  and  desirous  of  learn- 
ing, the  schools  have  improved  until  we  have  the  beautiful 
buildings  and  the  splendid  school  systems  of  to-day. 

Under  these  new  conditions,  it  became  very  evident 
that  the  old  schoolmaster  and  the  dame  schools,  with  their 
pitiful  lack  of  instruction  (see  page  31),  had  outlived  their 
usefulness.  More  and  more  the  citizens  of  the  country  be- 
gan to  feel  that  an  ignorant  citizen  was  a  dangerous  one. 
They  began  to  understand  that  it  was  not  only  the  aristo- 
cratic and  well-born  people  of  the  country  who  should  have 
an  education,  but  also  those  who  were  the  toilers.  The 
workman  who  is  educated  makes  a  better  workman ;  the 
farmer  who  knows  something  of  the  chemistry  of  soil  is  a 
better  farmer ;  the  housewife  who  understands  the  food 
value  of  what  she  cooks  makes  a  better  cook. 

The  old  system  which  made  it  possible  for  every  dis- 
trict to  have  the  sort  of  school  that  it  chose,  brought  it  about 
that  some  had  good  schools,  while  others  had  very  poor 


EDUCWTION" 


35 


ones.  In  some  sections  the  children  were  heconiinj;  edu- 
cated and  advancinj;  rapidly  in  the  race  toward  the  jjoal  of 
good  citizenship.  In  t)tliers  where  the  schools  were  poor, 
crime  and  drunkenness  and  ignorance  were  strongly  in  e\i- 
dence.  Because  of  such  conditions,  the  state,  little  by  little, 
Ix'gan  to  make  laws  for  all  the  schools  within  its  boundaries, 
but  did  not  interfere  with  the  enforcement  of  the  law  within 
the  boundaries  of  the  local  unit,  except  to  see  that  the  state 
laws  were  obeyed.  Step  by  step  this  movement  has  gone 
on  until  to-day  the  state  stands  back  of  all  of  its  schools. 
It  helps  the  weak  ones,  commends  the  good  ones,  and  always 
strives  for  the  advancement  of  both. 

The  school  unit. — There  is  in  every  state  a  division 
called  a  school  district,  or  that  which  corresponds  to  it  ; 
it  may  be  a  county  as 
in  Maryland,  or  a  town 
as  in  New  England,  or 
a  part  of  the  township 
as  in  the  north-central 
states.  Such  a  division 
has  its  own  school  or 
schools,  elects  its  own 
officials,  who  hire  the 
teachers  and  carry  on 
the  affairs  of  the  dis- 
trict. The  power  given 
to  these  officials  is  very 
extensive.  They  are  as- 
sisted in  their  work  by  a  state  board  of  education  or  a 
commissioner  of  education,  or  both.  In  most  of  the  states 
financial  assistance  is  given  to  the  unit  by  the  state  and  some- 
times bv  the  national  government,  in  addition  to  the  money 


,^-J 

■n 

_iii^  _^n! 

A  Rural  School 

.\  good  education  may  be  gained  oven 
in  such  a  school  as  this.  Compare  this 
school  with  the  one  on  i)ago  .S7. 


36  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

raised  by  the  local  unit.  This  is  sometimes  in  proportion  to 
the  number  of  teachers  employed  in  the  school,  and  some- 
times in  proportion  to  the  number  of  children  in  the  school. 
It  may  be  granted  on  account  of  the  course  of  study 
pursued. 

Education  is  practically  free  from  other  units  of  govern- 
ment, since  nearly  all  restrictions  are  removed  from  the 
people  when  they  consider  the  education  of  their  children. 
In  some  states  it  is  necessary  to  be  a  citizen  to  share  in  the 
government  of  the  town  or  of  the  state ;  it  is  not  necessary 
to  be  a  citizen  to  share  in  the  government  of  the  district. 
At  the  annual  school  meeting  called  to  consider  the  welfare 
of  the  children  who  attend  school,  all  those  who  reside  in 
the  district  and  have  children  in  school,  or  some  property 
qualification,  or  some  residence  requirement,  may  vote 
money  for  the  school,  may  help  elect  officials  of  the  district, 
or  do  whatever  is  considered  necessary  for  the  welfare  of  the 
children  in  the  school.  Though  the  state  may  make  laws  for 
the  administration  of  the  schools,  for  the  most  part  these 
laws  are  carried  out  by  the  officials  of  the  local  unit. 

Combined  districts.  —  A  distinct  advance  has  been  made 
in  some  of  the  states  by  combining  the  resources  of  several 
near-by  districts  and  putting  the  educational  affairs  of  the 
combined  districts  under  one  head.  California  and  New 
York  are  two  of  the  states  which  have  done  this.  One  cen- 
tral school  is  established  for  the  combined  districts,  and  a 
motor  truck  or  other  conveyance  is  provided  to  carry  the 
children  to  and  from  school.  Such  a  union  of  districts 
gives  the  children  a  better  chance  for  an  education,  as  better 
teachers  can  be  hired  and  more  advanced  subjects  may  be 
studied.  It  sometimes  makes  it  possible  for  the  children  to 
go  to  their  homes  for  a  warm  lunch  and  then  be  taken  back 


EDUCATION 


37 


to  school.  At  the  close  of  schooi  the  childrrii  arc  taken  to 
their  homes.  In  addition  to  all  tiiese  advantaf,a>s,  the  cen- 
tral school  is  found  to  be  cheaper  to  maintain  than  one  in 
each  district. 

Varieties  of  schools.  —  In  the  various  units  we  find  a 
great  \ariety  of  schools.  It  may  he  the  district  school 
mentioned  before;  if  it  is  a  town  or  village  it  has  a  high 


Courtesy  of  Hon.  C.  L.  Carrier 


High  School  in  a  Small  C^ommunitv,  Sl-uroundkd  hy  a 
Bkautifi'l  Pauk 


school ;  or  if  it  is  a  larger  town  or  city,  it  has  a  comj)Ictc  sys- 
tem of  schools  from  the  kindergarten  through  the  high 
school. 

The  earliest  school  of  all  is  the  kindergarten,  where  the 
youngest  children  begin  their  education.  Here  play  is 
turned  into  something  that  will  lay  the  foundation  for 
future  study.  Beyond  the  kindergarten  are  the  grades, 
usually  eight  in  number.  You  who  read  this  l)ook  have 
probably  passed  through  most  of  these  grades  and  perhaps 


38 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


have  already   reached    tlie   high  school   (jr   the  vocational 
school. 

Beyond  the  elementary  schools  arc  those  which  ijive  a 
chance  for  further  education.  Work  in  the  high  school 
prepares  those  who  wish  to  enter  college,  and  also  gives 
those  who  do  not  wish  to  go  to  college  a  broader  education 
than  that  which  the  grades  supply.     Many  of  those  who  go 


State  School  for  the  Training  of  Teachers 

Such  a  school  as  this  trains  the   teachers   who   teach   the   cliildreri    in   the 
elementary  schools. 

to  college  are  preparing  themselves  for  some  profession,  for 
example,  that  of  a  lawyer.  For  such  persons  there  are 
the  professional  schools,  schools  for  the  special  study  of  one 
profession,  medical  colleges,  theological  seminaries,  law 
schools,  and  the  like.  Beyond  these  are  the  graduate  schools 
of  which  Johns  Hopkins  University  is  a  splendid  example. 
There  is  such  a  bewildering  array  of  opportunities  that  it  is 


EDUCATION  39 

hard  to  know  wliich  of  the  professions  to  follow  and  which 
of  the  many  schools  to  attend. 

P'or  the  hoys  and  <;irls  who  do  not  wish  to  go  to  college 
and  yet  wish  to  have  more  education  than  the  high  school 
can  give,  there  is  the  vocational  school.  This  is  one  of  the 
schools  that  has  originated  in  recent  times.  Here  the  boys 
are  taught  the  beginnings  of  various  trades,  woodworking, 
electrical  work,  the  principles  of  agriculture  and  machine 
shop  work.  All  these  subjects  are  studied  in  connection 
with  some  of  the  subjects  which  the  ordinary  high  school 
teaches,  (iirls  are  taught  sewing,  cooking,  and  other  sub- 
jects necessary  to  make  good  home  makers.  Boys  and  girls 
are  also  taught  that  one  cannot  be  a  good  artisan  or  a  good 
home  maker  without  as  broad  an  education  as  ])()ssil)le,  and 
are  urged  to  carry  on  their  education  as  far  as  they  can. 

Corporation  schools.  So  great  is  the  value  of  an  educa- 
tion, and  so  much  have  the  great  business  concerns  of  the 
country  come  to  realize  that  an  ignorant  person  does  not 
return  value  to  the  company  for  the  salary  paid,  that  many 
have  established  schools  for  the  benefit  of  their  workmen. 
In  spite  of  the  fact  that  there  are  so  many  means  for  secur- 
ing an  education,  many  children  have  left  school  without 
more  than  a  beginning  of  the  training  necessary  for  success 
in  life.  Many  foreigners  who  have  come  to  this  country  and 
gone  to  work  for  the  corporations  have  been  found  to  be 
very  ignorant.  Even  if  they  are  intelligent,  they  do  not 
know  Knglish  well,  so  that  the  work  they  do  is  not  of  the 
best.  To  help  these  who  are  only  partly  educated,  and  the 
illiterate  foreigners,  many  cori)orati()ns  have  established  these 
"  corporation  schools  "  where  their  employees  may  be  edu- 
cated, not  only  along  the  line  of  the  business  of  the  corpora- 
tion, but  also  in  the  subjects  usually  taught   in  the  school- 


40  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

room.  Large  corporations  employing  women  have  estab- 
lished schools  for  them.  Here  an  opportunity  is  given  to 
learn  advanced  work  and  therefore  obtain  better  positions. 
Those  who  are  doing  work  not  to  their  liking  are  able  to 
learn  work  that  they  like  better. 

Evening  schools.  —  One  of  the  greatest  helps  to  the 
people  in  getting  an  education  is  the  evening  school.  To 
such  schools  come  those  who  for  some  reason  or  other  have 
not  received  all  the  education  that  they  feel  is  necessary  for 
their  best  welfare,  who  have  not  received  enough  educa- 
tion to  make  them,  fitted  to  hold  good  positions  and  to 
make  them  efficient  and  thereby  better  able  to  support 
themselves  and  their  families.  Many  come  to  learn  to  read 
and  write  better,  some  come  to  learn  to  do  better  work  in 
mathematics,  others  come  to  take  advantage  of  the  op- 
portunity to  learn  something  of  forging,  wood-working,  or 
electrical  engineering.  Women  and  girls  come  to  learn  to 
sew  and  cook,  or  whatever  the  schools  offer  to  make  them 
better  housewives.  To  the  evening  schools  go  the  children 
who  have  to  work  during  the  day,  but  who  by  the  com- 
pulsory education  laws  are  forced  to  get  more  education. 

One  of  the  most  important  kinds  of  work  the  evening 
schools  perform  is  that  which  they  do  for  the  immigrants. 
(See  Chapter  IX.)  Here  they  are  taught  to  read  and  write 
English,  and  in  many  of  the  schools  they  are  taught  the 
history  and  government  of  the  United  States.  Through 
such  courses  the  foreigner  may  readily  become  a  citizen  of 
his  adopted  country  when  the  proper  time  comes. 

In  some  of  the  counties  in  the  southern  states  are  famous 
schools  known  as  "  moonlight  schools."  Such  a  school  is 
something  like  an  evening  school.  A  teacher  felt  sorry  for 
the  ignorance  that  she  saw  about  her  and  conceived  the 


EDUCATION 


41 


42  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

plan  of  opening  her  school  in  the  evening,  that  those  who 
worked  on  the  farms  about  her  might  have  a  chance.  So 
anxious  were  the  people  to  learn  that  in  a  short  time  other 
teachers  had  to  be  hired  to  help.  One  of  the  pupils  was  a 
man  over  eighty  years  of  age.  He  had  never  had  a  chance 
to  be  taught,  and  even  at  that  age  took  advantage  of  the 
opportunity  when  it  came. 

F>rivate  schools.  —  In  addition  to  the  schools  supported 
by  the  state  and  by  the  people  of  the  community,  there  are 
those  known  as  private  schools.  Many  of  these  were  founded 
when  education  was  not  free  to  all  in  the  public  school  system. 
They  may  be  attended  by  the  pajinent  of  a  fee,  the  amount 
of  which  varies  in  different  schools.  Some  give  courses  in 
advance  of  the  high  school,  yet  not  as  full  as  a  college  course ; 
others  offer  a  college  preparatory  course ;  some  offer  courses 
for  backward  children,  or  other  special  types  of  individual 
instruction. 

Why  go  to  college  ?  —  At  the  present  time  and  for  many 
years  to  come  there  is  going  to  be  a  great  need  for  highly 
educated  men  and  women.  The  Great  War  killed  or  dis- 
abled thousands  of  the  best  educated  people  in  the  world. 
Their  places  must  be  filled.  Because  of  this  boys  and  girls 
should  take  advantage  of  every  opportunity  offered  to  get 
all  the  education  that  it  is  possible  to  obtain.  The  coming 
generations  will  be  greatly  handicapped  if  this  is  not  done. 
Not  only  should  the  time  spent  in  elementary  school  and  in 
high  school  be  used  to  the  best  advantage,  but  every  one  who 
can  should  think  about  going  to  college.  There  is  no  reason 
why  any  one  should  be  deprived  of  this  privilege.  Ways 
and  means  are  at  the  disposal  of  every  boy  and  girl  who  will 
make  use  of  his  opportunities. 

Just  as  a  carpenter  who  has  the  best  tools  can  do  the  best 


EDUCATION  43 

work,  or  the  mechanic  who  has  the  l)est  kno\vle(lfj;e  of  his 
uiaehine  can  tnrn  out  the  l)est  work,  so  the  hoy  or  th(>  f^irl 
who  has  the  best  etkication  will  be  able  to  be  of  the  f,'reatest 
service  to  his  country  and  to  his  community.  Other  things 
being  equal  th(>  best  doctor  is  the  one  who  has  studied  most, 
the  best  lawyer  is  the  one  who  has  the  broadest  and  most 
thorough  education.  There  are  many  ways  for  a  person  to 
work  his  way  through  college,  and  teachers  will  be  glad  to 
direct  any  one  who  wishes  to  get  a  college  education. 

School  rights  and  duties.  —  Tn  a  previous  chapter  (see 
Chapter  II)  we  learned  that  there  are  certain  duties  that  go 
with  the  rights  which  may  be  demanded  in  the  home.  The 
school  is  a  second  home,  and  here  the  duties  of  service,  obe- 
dience, thoughtfulness,  and  industry  are  as  important  as  in 
the  home.  We  have  a  right  to  an  education,  but  with  this 
right  go  certain  duties.  Obedience  is  the  first  law  of  the 
school  as  it  is  of  the  home.  Teachers  are  to  be  obeyed  for 
the  same  reasons  as  are  the  parents.  They  stand  in  the 
l)lace  of  the  parents,  and  so  should  be  obeyed.  Just  as  the 
l)arents  are  the  first  lawmakers  that  we  know,  so  we  shall 
find  that  there  are  lawmakers  for  the  school.  For  example, 
in  many  states  there  is  a  regulation  concerning  attendance. 
Children  must  attend  school  for  a  certain  number  of  days 
and  until  they  are  a  certain  age.  The  local  authorities  set 
the  hours  when  school  shall  be  in  session.  The  principal 
or  the  school  superintendent  or  the  teachers  make  the  regu- 
lations which  govern  our  actions  in  the  schoolroom.  It 
may  seem  that  these  rules  are  very  harsh  and  sometimes 
foolish.  If,  however,  the  pupil  considers  that  he  is  not  alone 
in  the  school  and  that  the  rights  of  others  must  be  con- 
sidered, it  will  be  easily  understood  wliy  rules  have  to  be 
made. 


44  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

Service  for  others  is  as  important  in  the  school  as  in  the 
home.  We  are  preparing  ourselves,  first  of  all,  during  our 
school  days  for  om*  future  life  as  grown-up  citizens.  It  is 
by  our  relations  with  others  that  we  stand  or  fall.  If  we 
neglect  our  opportunities  and  leave  school  without  taking 
advantage  of  what  the  school  offers  to  us,  then  we  shall  not 
understand  the  best  way  of  rendering  service  to  others. 
Actual  service  for  others  means  protecting  the  younger  and 
weaker  members  of  the  school  from  harm,  obeying  the  rules 
set  for  our  guidance  and  for  the  government  of  the  school, 
learning  and  performing  the  "  manners  "  of  the  old-fash- 
ioned "  dame  "  school.  Thoughtfulness  in  performing 
school  duties  will  bring  greater  results  in  the  school  as  it 
does  in  the  home. 

Cooperation  between  pupil  and  community.  —  If  com- 
munities expend  such  large  sums  as  they  do  ft)r  the  educa- 
tion of  the  children,  then  those  for  whom  the  beautiful 
school  buildings  are  erected  and  equipped  should  cooperate 
with  the  school  authorities.  When  a  community  erects  a 
beautiful  building,  decorates  it  with  pictures  and  statuary, 
equips  it  with  apparatus,  those  who  use  it  should  take  the 
best  of  care  of  it.  That  is  the  business  of  the  children  in  the 
schools.  It  is  the  right  of  "  all  the  children  of  all  the  people  " 
to  demand  an  education,  but  on  the  other  hand  it  is  the  right 
of  the  community  that  erects  the  building  where  education 
may  be  obtained,  to  demand  that  children  should  take  care 
of  it  and  its  contents. 

Not  only  should  care  be  taken  of  the  means  provided 
for  an  education,  but  they  should  be  used  intelligently 
and  industriously.  This  is  stating  in  a  different  way  what 
has  already  been  said  in  this  chapter,  that  children  should 
do  their  part  as  good  citizens  by  attending  school  regularly, 


EDUCATION 


45 


and  when  tlio>-  arc  there,  should  study  hard  an<l  be  obe- 
dient to  the  rules  of  the  school. 

Other  means  of  education.  Some  of  our  best  educated 
men  have  never  been  jjraduated  from  an  elementary  school, 
not  to  mention  a  hij2;h  school  or  a  colle,ti;e.  So  many  are  the 
opportunities  for  an  education  to-day  outside  of  school  that 


Courtesy  of  liiUlicrforil  Hai/ncT 

A  Modern  School  Building 
What  important  feature  does  it  lack  ? 

this  is  a  possibility.  There  is  no  need  for  any  one  in  our 
country  to  remain  ijjnorant.  First  of  all  these  means  out- 
side the  schools  are  the  daily  newspapers  and  the  magazines. 
No  one  should  fail  to  read  the  (lail\-  paper.  No  one 
can  be  well  Informed  about  the  world's  doings  who  does 
not  do  this.  Next,  there  are  the  libraries  in  almost  every 
town  m  the  land,  places  where  the  best  thought  of  the  world 


46 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


is  at  the  disposal  of  any  one  who  will  use  it.  The  libraries 
are  aided  by  the  great  museums  and  art  galleries  to  be 
found  in  most  of  the  larger  cities,  free  to  all  to  go  and 
learn.  Who  can  help  being  inspired  when  he  looks  at  a 
great  picture  or  some  wonderful  relic  restored  to  us  from  the 
past?     Literary  societies  are  found  in  almost  every  com- 


'  'iiurtesu  of  Rutherford  Hayncr 
The  Library  of  a  Small  Cummuxity 


munity,  reading  circles  and  debating  societies  are  formed 
in  almost  every  town.  Some  or  all  of  these  varied  activities 
are  at  the  command  of  every  one,  and  give  no  one  an  excuse 
for  being  ignorant  of  all  that  is  best  in  education. 

Reasons  for  an  education.  —  It  may  be  well  for  us  here  to 
sum  up  the  reasons  why  we  should  have  an  education. 

First  of  all,  an  education  should  make  it  possible  for  a  per- 
son to  earn  a  better  living.  The  educated  person  is  the  one 
who  succeeds  in  life. 


EDUCATION  47 

Second,  the  educated  person  is  the  one  who  gets  the  great- 
est enjoyment  from  Hfe.  Since  tlie  end  of  education  is 
"  to  be  as  useful  as  possible,  and  to  be  happy,"  the  more 
means  to  this  end  that  one  has,  the  greater  are  the  chances 
for  enjoyment. 

Third,  an  education  should  make  one  a  better  citizen, 
from  the  fact  that  educated  men  are  better  able  to  under- 
stand how  affairs  of  government  should  be  conducted,  and 
to  take  a  share  in  government  affairs  by  holding  office  or  by 
voting. 

Choosing  a  vocation.  —  All  the  education  a  person  may 
receive  will  be  of  little  value  unless  it  is  rightly  used.  For 
this  reason  the  choice  of  one's  business  in  life  should  receive 
careful  consideration.  Upon  this  choice  depends  future 
usefulness  and  happiness. 

There  are  certain  considerations  which  should  guide  you 
in  the  choice  of  a  vocation.  First  should  be  the  usefulness 
of  the  vocation.  Will  the  work  chosen  help  others,  make 
you  a  more  useful  citizen,  and  help  you  to  be  of  use  in  your 
community?  Second,  is  the  vocation  a  permanent  one  or 
is  it  one  of  the  "  seasonable  "  trades  in  which  there  is  work 
only  part  of  the  time?  IVIany  of  those  who  rushed  into 
positions  with  large  wages  during  the  World  War,  found 
themselves  without  anything  to  do  during  the  reconstruction 
period  after  the  war  was  over.  Third,  the  healthfulness  of 
the  vocation  should  be  considered,  Will  \our  health  be 
good  in  an  indoor  vocation  ?  If  you  are  not  strong,  should 
not  an  out-door  vocation  be  chosen?  Fourth,  is  the  work 
chosen  a  "blind  alley  job"?  Will  you  have  a  chance  to 
grow  and  progress  in  your  chosen  work?  The  remuneration 
for  such  a  "job  "  may  seem  large  when  it  is  entered  upon, 
but  if  it  is  to  remain  at  the  same  figure  during  all  the  coming 


48  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

j'ears,  something  else  should  be  chosen.  Fifth,  the  vocation 
chosen  should  give  a  chance  for  happiness  and  leisure.  Some 
one  has  said,  "  A  person  should  work  hard,  but  not  be  worked 
to  death."  We  shall  see  later  (Chapter  VI)  that  every  one 
should  have  some  time  for  recreation.  If  your  chosen 
vocation  does  not  give  some  time  for  play,  choose  another. 
The  sixth  consideration  is  the  one  most  often  considered  first, 
that  is,  remuneration.  The  amount  of  wages  a  person  re- 
ceives should  be  sufficient  to  support  his  family  and  pro\'ide 
a  surplus  for  the  future. 

Through  the  exercise  of  a  vocation,  something  of  value 
to  the  community  should  be  produced.  The  worker  should 
be  loyal  to  his  employer  and  the  employer  should  be  fair  to 
the  employee.  What  is  earned  should  be  earned  honestly, 
"  an  honest  day's  work  for  a  fair  day's  pay."  Remember 
that  it  is  not  what  one  earns  that  counts,  but  what  is  saved. 
Advance  in  your  work.  Do  not  be  content  to  sit  still.  The 
right  choice  of  a  vocation  tends  to  reduce  unemployment  and 
pauperism  and  to  make  contented  and  law-abiding  citizens. 

Americanization.  —  In  spite  of  all  the  opportunities 
for  an  education  to-day,  there  are  many  who  have  as  yet 
no  part  in  it.  Ten  per  cent  of  our  grown-up  population 
cannot  read  the  laws  they  are  supposed  to  know.  Out  of 
the  first  two  million  of  the  drafted  soldiers  who  were  called 
to  fight  in  the  war  against  Germany,  two  hundred  thousand 
could  not  read  the  orders  given  them,  nor  understand  them 
when  spoken.  This  great  number  of  uneducated  people 
includes  not  only  those  who  come  to  us  of  foreign  birth, 
but  also  many  native  born  adults  who  have  had  no  chance, 
and  very  many  of  the  colored  people. 

The  Honorable  Franklin  K.  Lane,  Secretary  of  the  In- 
terior (see  Chapter  XXI)  in  President  Wilson's  cabinet,  has 


KDl'CA'I'loX  49 

said,  "  1  1)('1k'\('  that  more  and  iiiorf  thought  will  be  ^'i\('ii  to 
our  school  system  us  the  most  ser\iceable  means  we  i)ossesst'or 
the  (le\-eloiimeiit  of  l)etter  America.  Are  you  fitted  for  the 
(ii^ht  ?  The  mail  who  knows  how  knowledge  can  be  con- 
\-erte(l  into  i)ower  is  the  man  for  whom  thci'c  is  unlimited 
ciH.  Kach  man's  rif^hts  are  to  i)e  measured,  not  by  what  he 
!ias,  but  by  what  he  does  with  it.  To  be  useful  is  the  essence 
of  Americanism,  and  against  the  undeveloped  resources 
|this  great  army  of  uneducated]  the  si)irit  of  the  country 
makes  ])r()test."' 

To  dcxclop  this  great  resource  of  man  j)ower  in  oin-  coun- 
try, local,  state,  and  national  go\"ermnents  are  putting  forth 
the  strongest  efforts  to  see  that  those  who  have  had  no  chance 
shall  receive  what  is  due  them.  The  uneducated  person  is  a 
drag  and  a  menace  to  his  community  ;  the  educated  citizen 
is  one  who  helps  it  to  go  ahead. 

(Questions  for  Investigation 

1.  How  many  schools  are  there  in  your  town  (city,  county)  ? 

2.  Who  is  your  superintendent  of  schools?  How  is  he  (or  she) 
cliosen '! 

o.  What  is  the  title  of  your  local  educational  body?  How  is  it 
chosen  ? 

4.  What  does  the  state  do  for  your  education?  Is  there  a  state 
hoard  of  education?  If  so,  how  is  it  chosen?  What  are  its  duties  and 
l)()wers? 

.").    How  do  you  plan  to  use  what  you  are  learning  in  school? 

().  Try  to  find  some  of  the  textbooks  in  English  and  History  that 
your  |)arents  or  your  grandparents  studied.  Compare  them  with 
yours. 

7.  Does  your  state  have  a  compulsory  education  law  ?  What  are 
its  provisions? 

8.  In  recent  years  has  your  state  i)asse(i  any  laws  that  aflVct  your 
getting  an  education? 

0.  What  does  your  state  or  your  local  school  do  to  teach  you  a  Noca- 
tion?     Has  it  a  vocational  school?     What  is  taught  in  such  schools? 


50  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

10.  What  is  a  continuation  sfhool  't  Does  your  state  provide  for 
such  a  school?  Do  you  tliink  it  would  be  an  advantage  to  a  com- 
munity ? 

11.  What  is  your  state  doing  to  educate  those  from  foreign  countries 
who  have  settled  here  ? 

12.  After  you  finish  the  high  school,  where  do  you  intend  to  com- 
plete your  education?     Do  you  want  to  go  to  college?     Why? 

13.  Do  you  think  that  a  person  with  a  college  education  has  a  better 
chance  of  getting  on  in  the  world  than  one  who  has  not  ?     Why  ? 

14.  Does  your  state  give  any  help  to  the  pupils  who  wish  to  go  to 
college  ?  Make  a  report  to  yoiu-  class  of  all  you  can  find  out  about  this 
matter. 

15.  Are  there  any  societies  of  college  graduates,  or  other  societies  in 
your  locality  or  state,  which  give  assistance  to  boys  and  girls  who  wish 
to  go  to  college?     What  assistance  are  they  willing  to  give? 

16.  Make  a  list  of  the  means  for  getting  an  education  in  your  local 
community  outside  of  the  schools. 

17.  Write  a  composition  on  one  of  the  following  subjects :  My 
School,  Why  I  Should  Go  to  College,  Choosing  a  Profession. 

18.  Ask  the  Children's  Bureau  of  the  Federal  Department  of  Labor 
to  send  you  any  publications  it  may  have  on  the  subject  of  children 
going  to  work  before  they  have  finished  school. 

19.  Is  there  a  State  University  in  your  state?  If  so,  where  is  it 
located?  In  what  respect  does  it  differ  from  the  other  higher  educa- 
tional institutions  in  the  state? 


CHAPTER   TV 

GOVERNMENT  AND  HEALTH 

Early  disregard  of  health  problems.  —  When  the  country 
was  new  the  work  of  the  majority  of  the  ])eoplc  was  in  the 
open  air,  the  towns  were  small,  and  each  person  could  look 
after  his  own  health.  There  was  no  need  for  laws  to  be 
passed  to  make  people  have  regard  for  the  rights  of  others 
or  to  keej)  them  from  endangering  the  health  of  other  people. 
But  as  the  t()^\Tis  grew  larger,  the  houses  were  built  more 
closely  together  and  the  streets  were  used  by  so  many  more 
people,  that  there  arose  a  need  for  some  sort  of  laws  to  pro- 
tect the  public  health.  Streets  became  dirty  and  bred  dis- 
ease. Indeed,  in  Philadelphia  as  late  as  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century  there  were  such  violent  outbreaks  of 
yellow  fever  that  thousands  of  the  inhabitants  died.  The 
refuse  and  sewage  of  the  homes  were  thrown  into  the  streets. 
In  the  early  history  of  the  cities  of  Europe  we  find  that 
periodic  outbreaks  of  the  Black  Plague,  which  we  know  to- 
day as  the  bubonic  plague,  swept  through  the  ditl'erent  coun- 
tries. In  England,  during  such  a  period  half  the  people 
died.  So  great  was  the  destructive  power  of  the  disease, 
that  a  fire  which  burned  one  half  the  city  of  London  was 
welcomed  because  it  st()i)i)ed  the  i)laguc.  Ejiidcmics  of  all 
sorts  were  many  and  widespread,  sparing  neither  the  rich 
nor  the  poor.  Even  George  Washington  did  not  escape, 
as  his  face  bore  to  the  time  of  his  death  the  scars  of  the 
ravages  of  smallpox. 

51 


52  .  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

Modern  ideas.  —  As  communities  ijrew,  peoi)le  learned 
that  health  was  a  matter  which  concerned  the  community 
as  a  whole.  There  were  so  many  people  who  could  not  or 
would  not  protect  themselves,  that  there  was  need  of  laws 
to  protect  those  who  were  careful  of  their  health  against 
those  who  were  not  careful  and  who  disregarded  the  rights 
of  others.  Nevertheless  this  knowledge  of  how  to  get  the 
best  health  conditions  is  of  comparatively  recent  origin. 
Only  in  recent  times  ha^'e  people  awakened  to  the  fact  that 
pure  air,  sunshine,  exercise,  and  good  food  have  more  to  do 
with  keeping  a  person  in  good  health  than  all  the  drugs  that 
can  be  taken.  A  very  famous  doctor  has  said,  "  Out  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  to  one  hundred  and  sixty  diseases  there 
are  only  seven  or  eight  that  can  be  cured  by  drugs."  No 
matter  how  many  laws  a  municipality  may  pass,  no  matter 
how  strict  it  may  be  in  the  enforcement  of  the  laws,  no  one  can 
keep  in  good  health  unless  he  does  his  share  by  taking  care  of 
himself  as  he  properly  should. 

Care  of  the  streets.  —  Because  of  the  fact  that  every  one 
does  not  take  the  proper  care  of  his  health  and  provide  him- 
self with  healthful  surroundings,  the  different  units  of  gov- 
ernment, local,  state,  and  national,  have  passed  laws  to 
protect  the  people  of  the  nation,  and  to  make  those  who  are 
careless  of  the  health  of  others,  do  what  is  right.  Because  the 
laws  of  the  town  or  city  in  which  we  live  come  closest  to  us 
and  because  we  can  see  how  these  laws  work,  let  us  con- 
sider first  some  of  those  laws  which  our  own  municipality 
makes  to  protect  our  health. 

First  of  all  it  keeps  the  streets  clean.  This  makes  it 
possible  to  breathe  pure  air,  and  to  keep  our  bodies  clean, 
two  prime  necessities  for  good  health.  The  cleaner  the 
community  the  more  healthful  it  is,  for  there  is  nothing  to 


GOVEIINMENT    A\D    HEALTH  53 

attract  flies,  rats,  and  otlier  vermin  wliich  spread  disease. 
'Vhv  principal  cause  of  the  epidemics  referred  to  in  an  earlier 
p.iriiyriipli  was  the  dirty  stre(>ts. 

The  most  serious  |)r()l)lrni  of  the  liir.i,^cr  nnuiicipalities  is 
that  of  street  cleaniui;-.  There  is  so  uuich  refuse  to  be  dis- 
posed of  that  until  recent  years  the  task  has  been  a  dis- 
couraging one.  To-day  in  each  city  of  any  size,  there  is  a 
regularly  organized  force  of  men,  to  each  of  whom  is  as- 
signed a  certain  part  of  the  street  to  keep  clean.  To  aid 
them  are  certain  machines,  mechanical  street  flushers  that 
wash  the  streets,  and  sweepers  that  brush  uj)  the  dirt.  The 
latest  and  most  modern  method  is  a  vacuum  cleaner  that 
takes  up  the  dirt  and  carries  it  away.  The  dirt  streets 
are  oiled  or  salted  ;  this  keeps  the  surface  dustless,  so  no 
dirt  can  be  blown  about. 

The  problem  presented  when  there  is  a  heavy  fall  of  snow 
is  a  diflicult  one.  In  New  York  ('ity  a  small  army  of  men  is 
employed  to  take  care  of  the  snow.  Machines  that  melt 
it  have  been  used,  though  the\-  are  not  very  successful. 
Aside  from  the  work  the  community  does  in  snow  removal 
from  the  streets,  most  towns  and  cities  have  ordinances 
which  force  the  citizens  to  clear  away  the  snow  and  ice  from 
the  walks  in  front  of  their  residences  and  places  of  business. 
Such  an  ordinance  should  not  be  necessary.  It  should  not 
l)e  necessary  for  the  comnumity  to  force  the  citizens  to  keep 
their  sidewalks  clean,  but  some  people  are  so  lazy  or  so  care- 
less of  the  rights  of  others  that  walks  are  not  cleaned  and 
accidents  occur.  Then  the  city  government  is  held  re- 
sponsible and  may  be  sued  for  damages  because  of  the  acci- 
dents. 

Removal  of  waste.  —  After  the  streets  are  cleaned,  the 
next  problem  the  comnumity  has  to  solve  is  the  removal  of 


54 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


the  waste  material.  The  material  collected  by  the  street 
sweepers,  the  garbage,  the  ashes,  dead  animals,  and  what- 
ever would  be  a  menace  to  the  health  and  well-being  of  the 
community,  must  be  taken  care  of,  and  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  may  harm  no  one.  Some  municipalities  throw  all 
this  away,  but  the  more  recent  method  is  to  dispose  of  it  in 


A  River  in  Flood 


■J  iiiithirfoTd  Haijnej 


The  picture  shows  a  flood  in  the  Hudson  River.  Groat  oare  must  be 
taken  when  the  flood  subsides  to  clean  up  thoroughly,  or  the  debris  it  brings 
would  be  a  menace  to  health. 


such  a  manner  that  it  will  bring  a  revenue  to  the  city  or 
town.  The  ashes  are  separated  from  the  refuse  and  used  for 
filling  in  near-by  lowlands.  Whatever  garbage  is  valuable 
as  fertilizer  is  disposed  of  for  this  purpose.  Some  of  the 
refuse  is  sold  as  old  rags  and  paper  for  the  manufacture  of 
other  paper,  and  some  is  disposed  of  to  the  soap  makers. 
Some  communities  have  an  incinerator  in  which  all  the  refuse 
is  burned.     The  old  method  of  dumping  all  the  waste  in 


GOVERNMENT   AND   HEALTH  55 

some  place  outside  the  limits  of  the  community,  there  to 
become  a  menace  to  the  health  of  others,  a  breeding  place  for 
rats,  the  carriers  of  disease,  has  been  <]jiven  up. 

Other  means  of  health  protection.  —  Besides  the  cleaning 
of  the  streets  and  the  renioxal  of  waste  it  is  necessary  for  the 
local  authorities  to  keep  the  air  of  the  city  clean  and  pure 
by  forcing  slaughter  houses,  soap  factories,  and  places  which 
make  foul  odors  and  poison  the  air,  to  carry  on  their  work 
outside  the  city  limits.  Factories  which  belch  forth  clouds 
of  black  nasty  smoke  are  forced  to  use  smoke  and  gas  con- 
sumers, which  free  the  air  from  the  impurities  they  cause. 
Man}'  communities  compel  owners  of  vacant  lots  to  keep 
them  cleared  up,  that  they  may  not  become  a  lurking  place  for 
mosquitoes  and  other  disease  carrying  insects.  Sometimes 
disease  breeding  ponds  and  slow  running  streams  are  drained 
or  filled  in,  and  the  dumping  of  rubbish  near  them  is  forbid- 
den. In  many  municipalities  the  local  authorities  set  aside  a 
week  of  the  early  spring  as  "  Clean  up  "  week.  A  concerted 
efiort  is  made  during  that  time  to  clean  out  the  accumula- 
tion of  dirt  and  rubbish,  which  is  then  taken  care  of  by  the 
authorities.  One  day  of  the  week  is  usually  set  aside  for  the 
children  of  the  schools  to  clean  up  about  their  homes. 

The  duty  of  all.  —  It  is  evident  from  what  has  been  said 
above  that  every  one  nmst  do  his  share  in  keeping  the  streets 
clean.  If  on  the  way  from  school  one  throws  a  pocket  full  of 
papers  in  the  street,  it  should  be  remembered  that  some  one 
will  have  to  clean  them  up  or  else  the  street  will  be  dirty. 
If  each  one  were  careful  not  to  throw  rubbish  in  the  street, 
there  would  be  much  less  for  the  street  cleaner  to  do. 

Along  this  same  line  is  another  matter  in  which  author- 
ities are  often  very  lax.  In  many  connnunities,  displayed 
conspicuously,  are  signs  which  read,  "  Please  Do  Xot  Spit 


56 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


GOVKHNMFA'T    AND    UKALTH 


57 


DON'T  Spit! 


oil  the  Side-Walk.  By  Order  of  the  Board  of  Health." 
Siiiee  it  has  been  discovered  that  diseases  are  spread  in  this 
manner,  such  warnings  ought  to  be  heeded.  Not  only  is 
spitting  a  filthy  act,  but 
so  many  diseases  may  be 
passed  on  to  others  by 
this  means,  that  it  is  one 
of  the  chief  ways  of  coni- 
nnniicating  disease.  The 
great  trouble  is  that  so 
good  a  law  is  not  strictly 
enforced.  This  makes  it 
worse  than  if  there  were 
no  such  law  ;  it  tends  to 
tiiake  us  disregard  all 
laws,  when  we  know  that 
a  law  is  not  strictly  en- 
forced. 

Quarantine  laws. 
Local  quarantines.  —  So 
great  is  the  danger  from 
the  spread  of  certain  dis- 
eases, that  all  forms  of 
government,  local,  state, 
and  national,  have  passed 
laws    concerning    them . 

Such  laws  are  known  as  (luaiantiiic  laws.  These  regulations 
are  all  of  the  same  general  meaning,  for  they  stop  the 
approach  of  all  i)ersons  to  the  infected  person  or  district. 
Locally,  as  soon  as  the  doctor  in  charge  finds  a  case  of 
scarlet  fever,  diphtheria,  or  other  communicable  disease,  he 
reports  the   matter  to  the  local  health   authorities.     This 


\nu  are  \-i<>!alin;^ 
the  law  auaiiist 

S  1>  F  TTI  X  n    **" 

Yoiiarc'subjfiito 

iinprisonmrnl  or 

tiiic,  or.  Ijoth. 

Ily  ..r.kr  ..i  thi 

n<)\Kl)  i)F   HI-.ALTH 


When  you  must  ~i.it.  Kxik  for  a  s<.-.<cr  i;pcn- 

iriK  or  ;i.  sutler.  <>r  ^  pit  into  ynur 

iuinilLcrchic:. 

S|.;i  m.iy  Iw  full  (It  thc«frins  ..f  tiilK-riMln- 
-is.  imiuiniinia  and  other  .li-  .  ■ 

DON'T  Spit! 


Thl;  l.-at1.t  i^  p'.ih!;-<u-l  hy  ihe 

Department  of  Health,  City  of  New  York 

,i,.l    ii-ir'li'iti-l  ''V  ill.- 

Brooklyn  Rapid  Transit  (ompain  and  the 
Tubprrulosis  Comniiltce,  Brooklyn  Bureau  of  Oiarilies  J 


)-.,rn.  No.  Ml.-. 


>1-1.''.M-IV'1...*  I  ) 


Coiirtcsu  of  Hcallh  Institute 

A  PusTKK  OF  A  Department  of  Health 


58  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

authority  causes  a  notice  to  be  placed  on  the  house  of  the 
sick  person  forbidding  any  one  to  enter  or  leave  the  house 
until  the  notice  is  officially  removed.  A  severe  penalty  is  im- 
posed on  any  one  who  breaks  this  law.  In  some  places  where 
disease  is  very  widespread  and  deadly,  the  inhabitants  have 
been  known  to  establish  a  "  shot-gun  "  quarantine.  This 
means  that  armed  men  patrol  the  district  and  send  back  all 
who  come  from  the  infected  region,  so  that  they  may  not 
spread  the  disease  by  going  to  other  towns. 

State  quarantine.  —  The  state  does  practically  the  same 
thing  as  the  local  authorities.  The  quarantine  which  it 
may  establish  may  include  animals  as  well  as  people.  Not 
long  ago  a  virulent  disease  broke  out  among  the  cattle  of 
New  York  State.  So  strict  a  quarantine  was  established 
about  the  infected  district  that  not  only  were  people  forbidden 
to  go  near  the  place,  but  a  guard  was  established  to  keep 
hens,  dogs,  and  cats  away  from  the  barns  where  the  cattle 
were.  The  animals  themselves  were  destroyed  and  buried 
in  quicklime.  The  state  also  has  the  power  to  destroy 
herds  of  cattle  which  may  be  infected  with  tuberculosis. 
The  milk  sold  from  a  herd  of  tuberculosis  cattle  wull  infect 
human  beings.  When  such  a  herd  is  destroyed  proper  com- 
pensation is  made  to  the  owner  by  the  state. 

National  quarantine.  —  The  United  States  government 
maintains  a  quarantine  station  at  the  approach  to  each  harbor 
in  the  country  to  which  ships  from  foreign  countries  may 
come.  At  this  spot  all  ships  must  stop  until  their  passengers 
and  crews  are  examined.  If  contagious  disease  is  found  on 
board,  the  ship  is  held  until  all  danger  is  past.  The  national, 
state,  and  local  governments  sometimes  unite  in  a  quarantine 
measure.  When  the  country  was  in  danger  of  the  plague  in 
the  harbor  of  New  Orleans  and  also  in  San  Francisco,  a  com- 


GOVERNMENT   AND    IIEAI/ni  60 

hincd  cfl'ort  of  all  the  units  of  fi^ovcrniiR'nt  was  iiuide  to  kill  the 
rats  which  infested  the  cities  mentioned,  as  they  are  the 
carriers  of  the  fleas  which  carry  the  disease  to  human  beings. 
So  successful  has  the  fight  been  that  the  cities  arc  now  |)ractl- 
cally  free  from  these  pests,  and  danger  from  the  pla^nie  is 
not  feared.  Government  officials  also  conduct  experiments 
in  the  prevention  and  control  of  dangerous  diseases,  and  a 
number  of  them  have  given  their  lives  in  these  experiments. 
Such  men  have  just  as  truly  given  their  lives  to  the  country 
as  if  they  had  lost  them  on  the  battle  field. 

Food.  —  Food  and  drink  are  prime  necessities  of  life. 
Those  who  raise  the  food  for  the  nation  are  constantly  study- 
ing how  to  increase  the  supply  that  the  world  may  he  i)n)perly 
fed.  Young  men  and  women  go  to  college  to  study  better 
methods  of  farming,  improved  implements  and  machinery 
are  invented,  and  mor(^  efficient  management  of  farms  is 
learned.  Boys  and  girls  form  corn  clubs,  pig  clubs,  and 
canning  clubs,  that  when  thc\-  grow  up  they  may  be  success- 
ful in  their  work  as  food  producers.  (\)()i)erati\-e  associa- 
tions are  formed  among  food  producers,  which  make  the 
marketing  of  foods  easier  and  cheaper  and  give  the  members 
of  the  cooperative  association  better  prices,  at  the  same  time 
supplying  a  better  product  to  the  consumer. 

The  government  tries  in  many  ways  to  help  those  who  raise 
our  food.  State  Departments  of  Agriculture  and  the  Federal 
Department  of  Agriculture  conduct  heli)ful  experiments, 
the  State  Sealer  of  Weights  and  Measures  or  a  similar  official, 
with  his  local  representatives,  tries  to  prevent  fraud  in  weight 
and  measure  through  local  inspections. 

Food  inspection.  —  Nevertheless,  in  spite  of  all  the  care 
from  individuals  and  watchfulness  on  the  part  of  the  govern- 
ment, dishonest  dealers  otlcr  bad  Unn\  for  sale.     Sickness  is 


60  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

sometimes  caused  by  bad  or  impure  food.  Before  much 
of  our  food  <'onies  into  our  homes  it  has  been  inspected 
by  government  officials.  The  local  inspectors  visit  the  retail 
stores,  and  if  food  imfit  to  eat  is  offered  for  sale,  it  is  seized 
and  destroyed.  The  great  stockyards  and  meat  packing 
houses  of  the  West  are  under  the  control  of  the  federal 
government,  whose  inspectors  see  to  it  that  no  meat  is 
shipped  that  is  not  fit  for  food. 

After  a  long  fight.  Congress,  the  law-making  body  at 
Washington,  has  passed  a  series  of  laws  prescribing  the 
methods  by  which  food  may  be  placed  on  sale,  and  the 
means  by  which  it  may  be  preserved.  Unscrupulous  manu- 
facturers were  in  the  habit  of  using  poisonous  or  dangerous 
materials  in  the  preparation  of  canned  goods  and  other 
foods.  Some  placed  paraffine  in  a  preparation  used  for  icing 
cakes,  some  placed  poisonous  coloring  matter  in  catsup  and 
other  highly  colored  foods,  some  mixed  foreign  material 
in  flour  to  give  it  weight.  All  such  acts  have  been  stopped 
by  the  laws  which  force  every  manufacturer  of  food  to  state 
exactly  what  the  food  contains,  and  to  guarantee  that  the 
food  is  pure  and  not  preser\'ed  with  harmful  materials. 

Patent  medicine  laws.  —  The  law  has  also  been  called 
upon  to  govern  the  manufacture  of  patent  medicines.  Many 
patent  medicines  were  frauds,  compounded  of  poor  whisky, 
water,  some  coloring  matter,  and  some  harmful  drug.  Thou- 
sands of  people  unconsciously  became  slaves  of  whisky  or 
some  habit-forming  drug  by  the  use  of  these  medicines. 
Since  the  passage  of  the  law,  all  patent  medicines  must 
state  plainly  upon  their  wrapper  the  materials  of  which  the 
medicine  is  made.  Some  companies  which  made  these  medi- 
cines have  been  forced  to  go  out  of  business  and  others 
have  been  required  to  change  their  fornuilas  to  comply  with 


COVEHN'MKNT    AN'I)    UKAI/FII  ()1 

llic  law.  It"  a  person  is  ill,  it  is  luucli  hettor  to  f^o  to  a  doctor 
than  to  rely  on  a  medicine  about  which  he  knows  nothing. 

A  pure  water  supply.  —  Water  is  one  of  the  necessities  of 
good  health.  If  the  water  supply  of  a  community  is  poor, 
sickness  follows.  One  of  the  most  common  diseases  arising 
from  a  contaminated  water  suj)ply  is  tyi:)hoid  fever.  One 
of  the  most  important  duties  of  a  local  government  is  to  ar- 
range for  an  abundant  supply  of  pure  water,  that  dis- 
ease may  be  avoided.  Reservoirs  are  built  to  hold  back  a 
sufficient  supply,  which  is  piped  to  the  town  or  city  and  then 
into  our  homes.  Great  care  is  taken  that  all  the  water  which 
drains  into  a  reservoir  is  ])ure  and  that  all  the  land  sur- 
rounding the  water  supply  is  kept  in  a  sanitary  condition. 
INIany  times  whole  farms  are  purchased  that  there  may  be  no 
chance  for  the  water  to  be  impure.  So  important  is  this 
matter  that  if  the  owners  will  not  sell  voluntarily,  the  state 
may  join  with  the  local  authorities  and  force  the  sale  of  such 
land  for  a  ])rojX'r  compensation.  This  right  of  the  state  to 
take  land  for  public  use  is  called  the  right  of  eminent  domain. 

Frequently,  in  the  rural  districts  the  water  supply  is  not  as 
pure  as  in  the  cities.  The  supply  comes  from  wells,  springs, 
lakes  or  rivers,  and  often  rain  water  is  caught  and  stored  in 
cisterns.  Since  clear  water  is  not  necessarily  |)ur('  water, 
the  water  used  should  be  tested.  Such  a  test  may  usually 
be  had  on  application  to  the  state  commissioner  of  health. 

One  should  never  drink  from  a  brook  oi  a  ri\er  unless  per- 
fectly sure  that  the  water  is  uncontaminated  by  impurities. 
In  rural  districts  especial  care  should  be  taken  in  the  disposal 
of  sewage.  Carelessness  in  this  respect,  on  a  farm  ten  miles 
from  a  city,  caused  a  ty])hoid  epidemic  to  break  out  in  the 
city.  Scores  of  lives  were  lost  because  of  someone's  care- 
lessness.    Ice  water  should  not  be  made  by  putting  the  ice 


(32  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

in  tlie  water,  but  by  placing'  the  water  bottle  on  the  ice. 
Some  dangerous  germs  are  not  killed  by  freezing. 

Health  of  school  children.  —  The  state  and  local  au- 
thorities look  after  the  health  of  the  children  in  the  schools. 
The  state  does  not  permit  a  school  building  to  be  erected 
without  specifying  that  proper  sanitary  arrangements  must 
be  made,  that  it  must  be  properly  ventilated,  and  that  there 
must  be  a  sufficient  amount  of  light  properly  arranged. 
The  authorities  in  most  states  forbid  children  under  cer- 
tain ages  to  work  in  factories  and  stores.  Years  ago, 
thousands  of  very  young  children .  died  from  being  forced 
to  work  long  hours  a  day  in  factories.  The  state  of 
New  York  has  a  recent  law  which  compels  gymnastic 
exercises  to  be  given  in  all  the  schools,  both  country  and 
city.  Such  exercises  are  of  particular  value  to  the  country 
schools,  for  the  draft  made  during  the  World  War  revealed 
the  fact  that  country  boys  were  far  less  perfect  physically 
than  the  boys  of  the  city. 

Rules  for  health.  —  The  attitude  of  a  person's  mind  has  a 
great  deal  to  do  with  being  sick.  All  the  laws  passed  by  all 
the  different  governments  will  not  keep  us  well  unless  we  do 
our  share.  Some  one  has  written  out  a  set  of  rules  for  us 
to  follow  if  we  wish  to  keep  in  good  health. 

"  Don't  worry. 

Don't  hurry. 

Sleep  and  rest  abundantly. 

Spend  less  nervous  energy  each  day  than  you  make. 

That  is,  work  like  a  man,  but  don't  be  worked  to  death. 

Be  cheerful,  for  a  light  heart  lives  long. 

Think  only  healthful  thoughts,  for  as  a  man  thinketh  in 
his  heart,  so  is  he. 

Avoid  passion  and  excitement. 


GOVERXMENT    AND    lIKAI/ni 


G3 


Associate  only  witli    healthy  iH-opIc,   I'or  health   is  con- 
tagious, as  well  as  disease. 
Never  despair,  for  lost  hope  is  a  latiii  disease." 


The  Hand  of  Healih 

ITeach  for  //jese  fiue  vece^sditted  aiilh  a  c/ear? 
hand  ar7d  a  clear  heacf ^  O  A^an ,  anJ  lY 
need  he,  clinc/i  j/our  hanc/anJfijht  for  f/u^in. 


Drawn  by  Edwlm  Wal^h.  Photu  bu  W.  A .  Ounn 


64  .  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 


Questions  for  Investigation 

1.  In  what  ways  does  smoke  interfere  with  the  heahh  of  a  com- 
munity ?  Has  your  community  passed  any  ordinances  against  it  ? 
Are  they  enforced?     If  not,  wliyi* 

2.  Why  do  many  communities  set  aside  a  weelv  eacii  year  known  as 
"Clean-up"  week?     What  is  accomphshed  during  such  a  period? 

3.  Give  some  laws  that  have  been  passed  recently  to  protect  the 
health  of  the  people  of  your  town.     Your  state. 

4.  What  does  the  government  do  to  help  the  poor  and  the  ignorant 
take  care  of  their  health?  Does  a  person  have  to  pay  to  go  to  the 
hospital  ? 

5.  What  are  some  of  the  precautions  each  home  should  take  to  keep 
disease  away? 

6.  Name  the  officials  of  the  town,  comity,  state,  and  nation  who 
look  after  your  health. 

7.  How  does  the  national  government  protect  the  health  of  the 
people  during  an  epidemic? 

8.  Why  is  spitting  on  the  sidewalk  or  in  a  public  place  a  menace  to 
health  ?  What  di.seases  does  it  spread  ?  Has  youi-  commimity  an 
ordinance  against  spitting?     Is  it  enforced?     If  not,  why? 

!).  Were  you  ever  quarantined  ?  If  so,  write  a  composition  telling 
about  your  experience. 

10.  How  is  the  waste  material  of  your  city  disposed  of?  Do  you 
think  that  there  are  better  ways  than  your  city  uses?     What  are  they? 

11.  Are  there  laws  in  your  state  against  leaving  machinery  im- 
guarded  ?     Are  those  laws  enforced  ? 

12.  Which  are  the  healthier,  country  boys  or  city  boys?  How  can 
you  prove  your  statement  ? 

13.  How  is  health  cared  for  in  the  average  farmer's  family?  In  the 
average  city  family?  Can  you  give  any  reasons  for  the  conditions  in 
each? 

14.  How  many  parks  does  your  commimity  possess?  Does  it  give 
you  any  place  to  play  ball  ?  Are  there  places  in  the  parks  for  the  girls 
to  play? 

15.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  "contagious"  disease  and 
one  that  is  called  "infectious"? 

16.  What  special  laws  has  your  state  for  the  protection  of  the  health 
of  the  school  children  ? 

17.  Does  your  comnumity  have  a  Health  Center?  What  benefits 
are  derived  from  such  a  center? 


GOVERNMENT   AND    IIKAI/ni  (if) 

18.  Why  is  it  better  for  coininiinities  lociited  in  river  valleys  not 
to  get  their  supplies  of  drinking  water  from  the  river V  I)i>  yon 
know  any  such  valleys?  How  <l(>  the  cities  there  get  their  drinking 
water? 

19.  Notice  how  many  times  a  day  yon  pnt  your  Kngers  to  your 
lips.      Were  your  fingers  clean?      Why  should  they  he? 

20.  "  An  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure."  Write 
the  story  of  a  citizen  who  learned  through  l)itter  experience  the  truth 
of  this  proverb  when  api)lied  to  the  case  of  («)  his  personal  health, 
(/>)  the  health  of  the  community. 


CHAPTER  V 

PROTECTION  OF  LIFE  AND  PROPERTY 

The  government  not  only  looks  after  the  health  of  the 
people  of  the  nation,  but  it  also  protects  them  and  their 
property  in  other  ways.  The  national  constitution  (see  Chap- 
ter XXV)  guarantees  to  every  citizen  three  fundamental 
rights,  the  right  of  personal  liberty,  the  right  of  personal 
security,  and  the  right  of  private  property.  These  are 
known  as  their  civil  rights.  To  make  these  rights  secure, 
the  people  of  the  nation  must  be  protected  from  all  harm 
as  they  go  about  their  several  duties,  and  tJieir  property 
must  be  made  safe  to  them  so  that  their  homes  may  be  safe. 
We  have  seen  that  the  home  is  the  basis  upon  which  the 
nation  is  built,  and  unless  our  homes  are  secure,  the  nation 
falls.  The  government  protects  us  in  one  way  or  another 
from  the  time  that  we  are  born  to  the  day  of  our  death. 
It  insists  that  every  birth  be  recorded  in  the  proper 
governmental  office  by  the  attending  doctor,  and  every 
death  must  be  recorded  with  its  cause.  We  have  seen 
that  our  protection  begins  in  the  home  where  we  are  pro- 
tected by  our  parents,  but  when  we  go  out  into  the  street 
away  from  our  parents'  direct  care,  the  local  government 
begins  to  protect  us. 

The  policeman.  —  In  a  city  of  any  size  there  is  seen  walk- 
ing along  the  street,  in  whatever  part  of  the  city  you  may  go, 
a  person  dressed  in  a  blue  uniform.  He  does  not  appear 
to  be  very  busy,  unless  he  stands  at  the  intersection  of  several 

66 


PROTECTION    OF    LIFE    AND    PllOPEIMN  (i? 

Streets  and  by  the  wave  of  his  hand  controls  the  stream  of 
traffic  which  flows  by  him.  Kven  here  lie  simply  \va\-es  his 
hand  and  the  traffic  stops  or  starts  as  he  indicates.  Some- 
times we  see  such  a  man  mounted  on  a  horse  riding'  slowlv 
along  the  street,  or  periiaps  with  staccato  bark  a  motor- 
cycle carrying  a  blue-coated  person  rushes  swiftly  past  ns. 
We  know  this  man  as  the  policeman,  sometimes  known 
familiarly  as  the  "  cop." 

Apparently  his  is  an  easy  j)ositioii.  All  he  seems  to  do 
is  to  walk  back  and  forth,  or  to  ride  his  horse  or 
his  motorcycle  about  the  streets.  How  does  this  pnttect 
the  citizens?  But  here  comes  a  run;i\v;i\  horse  raeint; 
madly  up  the  street.  The  crowd  scatters  in  a  rush  for 
safety.  The  street  is  deserted  except  for  the  bhiecoat  on  ,i 
horse.  He  hears  the  clatter  of  the  a])proaching  runa\va\- 
and  swiftly  turns  and  rides  madly  apparently-  away 
from  the  trouble.  But  we  notice  that  the  runawa\-  is 
gradually  catching  up  with  the  officer,  and  that  his  wdl- 
trained  horse  gradually  edges  toward  the  frightened  animal. 
Soon  the  two  horses  are  racing  side  by  side,  and  the  oliicer 
has  grasi)ed  the  fallen  reins.  His  horse  is  now  sIowiiilt 
down  and  before  long  the  maddened  animal,  under  full  con- 
trol of  the  policeman  and  his  horse,  is  brought  to  a  stand- 
still. This  is  an  example  of  one  sort  of  work  of  the  police 
force  and  is  known  as  protectix'c  work. 

Night  comes.  A  man  is  trying  to  force  his  way  into  a 
house.  The  policeman  as  he  walks  along  his  beat  hears  the 
noise  of  the  window  as  it  creaks  under  the  force  n\'  the 
burglar's  "jimmy."  At  once  the  bhiecoat  rushes  toward 
the  building,  and  after  a  struggle  the  marauder  is  o\-er- 
powered,  and  taken  away  to  puni-shment.  This  is  also 
protecti\"e  work. 


68  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

There  is  another  kind  of  work  done  by  the  poHceman. 
This  is  known  as  preventive  work.  His  very  presence  on  the 
street,  the  very  fact  that  evil-disposed  persons  know  that 
back  of  the  pohceman  is  the  full  power  of  the  law,  is  suffi- 
cient to  keep  them  from  wrong-doing.  When  boys  are 
playing  ball  in  the  street  or  doing  something  they  know  is 
wrong,  the  very  cry,  "  Run,  here  comes  the  cop,"  is  suffi- 
cient to  cause  a  scattering  without  further  warning.  The. 
boys  know  that  ball-playing  in  the  street  is  forbidden  by  a 
city  ordinance,  and  since  they  realize  they  are  guilty,  the 
sight  alone  of  the  policeman  is  enough  to  stop  the  game. 
But  we  should  remember  .that  the  important  fact  about  a  police- 
man's work  is  that  he  does  his  work  not  to  be  a  terror  to  the 
people,  but  to  act  as  a  protector.  The  ball  players  are 
interfering  with  the  rights  of  others  in  the  street,  and  that 
is  the  reason  why  the  policeman  puts  a  stop  to  the  game, 
not  because  he  dislikes  to  have  boys  play  ball.  To  him  all 
are  entitled  to  look  for  help  and  it  will  be  gladly  given. 

Such  an  officer  is  usually  appointed  to  his  work,  in  some 
cities  by  what  is  known  as  the  Department  of  Public  Safety, 
and  in  others  by  the  mayor.  His  appointment  is  usually 
made  after  an  examination  of  the  candidate  as  to  his  knowl- 
edge of  his  duties,  of  the  city,  its  streets  and  public  build- 
ings. 

The  village  constable.  —  In  the  smaller  towns  and  Aillages 
there  are  not  so  many  people  on  the  street  to  interfere  with 
others'  rights,  and  there  is  not  so  much  traffic  as  in  the  city 
street.  Yet  no  matter  how  small  the  town,  there  is  gen- 
erally at  least  one  officer  chosen  to  keep  the  peace  of 
the  community.  These  officers  are  usually  known  as  con- 
stables. In  most  cases,  they  are  elected  by  the  people  whom 
they  serve.     During  recent  years,  the  duties  and  influence 


PROTKCTiOX    OK    LIFK    AM)    1'K0|M':K'I'\ 


iW) 


of  the  coiistahU*  have  fjrowii  somewhat  owiii^  to  the  in- 
creased luimher  of  motor  xchicles.  FIc  is  the  authority  who 
enforces  the  local  ordinances  against  tiie  speechn};  of  >\n\\ 
vehicles,  and  his  enforcement  of  the  law.  tlionj,di  it  may 
seem  harsh  to  the  motorists  who  are  caii<,dit.  has  donhtless 
saved  manv  from  accident  and  harm. 


urits;/  ••!  Hut  If 


A  Bad  Fiue 
The  state  eai)itol  at  Albany,  New  York,  on  fire. 

The  fireman.  —  Not  only  may  citizens  demand  |)rotec- 
tion  from  harm  from  each  otlier,  on  the  streets,  in  tli<-  home 
and  elsewhere,  bnt  ther(>  is  another  daiiL^er  that  sometimes 
threatens  which  citizens  exi)ect  ^'o^fniment  to  ward  otf. 
that  is,  the  danger  from  fire.  Most  cities  and  towns  main- 
tain some  sort  of  an  organization  to  fight  fire.  "  Fire  is  a 
good  servant,  bnt  a  had  master."  and  when  it  is  in  danger 


70 


COMMUNITY    CTVirS 


of  hecomin^^  master  it  needs  to  be  controlled.  In  cities 
much  expensive  apparatus  is  bought,  engines,  trucks,  chemi- 
cal engines,  fire  tugs,  automobiles  for  the  chiefs,  and  what- 
ever is  necessary  to  fight  the  destroyer.  In  some  cities, 
smoke  helmets  are  in  use,  a  device  which  permits  a  fireman 
to  enter  thick  and  stifling  smoke  without  danger.  A 
modern  in\ention,  the  pulmotor,  is  used  to  restore  those 


Courlisn  of  Ruthtrfurd  Hayner 

Fire  Apparatus  of  a  Small  Community  during  its  Early 
History 


who  have  been  overcome  by  smoke  and  gas.  In  smaller 
towns  so  much  apparatus  is  not  necessary,  and  the  work  is 
done  by  volunteer  companies.  The  fire  hose  or  the  engine 
is  usually  dragged  to  the  place  of  danger  by  these  volunteers, 
who  have  a  healthy  rivalry  as  to  the  first  company  to  reach 
the  fire. 

The  duty  of  the  citizen.  —  The  special  duty  of  every 
good  citizen  is  to  see  that  fire  does  not  start,  and  to  help 
in  this  matter  people  are  being  urged  to  be  careful  in  the 


PHOTKCTIOX    OF    LIKK    AM)    I'Koi'KlM' V  71 

use  of  fire.     Indoed,  so  successful  has  this  canifwi^'n  hccii 
that  in  one  year  alone  hi  New  York  City,  one  niiiiion  dollars 


Courlcsy  of  liutlu  rfuril  UnyncT 
A    HOHSE-DRAWN    StEAMEU 


worth  of  property  has  been  saved  and  lO.OOO  fires  prevented. 
Three  fourths  of  all  the  fires  are  due  to  children.  Election 
bonfires   are   fun,    but   dangerous   fun.     Fireworks   on    the 


Courlcsu  of  Rutherford  llntinrr 


A    MoDEKN    Pl'MPEU 

Compare  the  three  t.vi)cs  of  (ire  ai)i>:ir;itiis  on  these  two  paKos. 

Fourth  of  July  give  pleasure  to  iiian.\ .  l)Ut  thtif  lanNss  use 
causes  manv  fires.     In  some  states  a  special  d;i,\ ,  known  as 


72  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

Fire  Prc\ention  day,  is  set  apart  on  which  a  special  interest 
is  aroused  as  to  the  different  means  by  which  fires  may  be 
avoided. 

Fire  insurance.  —  By  the  payment  of  a  small  sum  an- 
nually to  an  insurance  company,  one  may  insure  his  prop- 
erty against  fire.  0^'er  these  companies  the  state  exercises 
a  watchful  care.  Xo  insurance  company  may  do  business 
without  the  authority  of  the  state.  The  financial  ability 
of  the  company,  the  honesty  of  its  officials,  and  its 
ability  to  pay  its  debts,  are  carefully  investigated  by  the 
state.  Such  companies  are  of  great  value  to  a  community, 
if  they  are  properly  conducted,  for  they  give  a  person  who 
suffers  a  loss  b}'  fire  a  chance  to  secure  some  recompense 
for  loss. 

How  the  county  and  the  state  protect  us.  —  The  sheriff 
of  the  county  gives  protection  to  the  people  in  his  county. 
(See  Chapter  XM.)  In  a  like  manner  but  with  added  powers 
the  state  takes  care  of  us.  The  state  protects  those  within 
its  borders  b\'  means  of  men  who  may  protect  us  against 
harm  just  as  the  sheriff"  t)f  the  county,  the  policeman  of  the 
city,  or  the  constable  of  the  town  does  ;  and  also  by  means  of 
the  city  and  coimty  lawmaking  bodies,  which  pass  laws  for 
our  protection,  as  does  the  lawmaking  body  of  the  state, 
which  passes  laws  to  protect  the  citizens  of  the  whole  state. 

The  state  militia  consists  of  all  able-bodied  male  citizens 
between  the  ages  of  eighteen  and  forty-fi\'e.  That  part  of  the 
militia  which  is  organized  and  drilled  is  known  as  the  national 
guard.  Aj)j)i:opriations  are  made  from  time  to  time  by  the 
state  authorities  for  the  support  of  the  guard,  to  build  armories 
for  the  purpose  of  drill  and  the  housing  of  arms,  to  furnish 
guns  and  ammunition  and  other  supplies.  From  time  to  time 
the  guard  meets  at  the  armories  to  learn  the  work  and  duties 


l'K()Tl<:('TI()X    OF    LIFK    AM)    I'Koi'Kirrv  7.'^ 

of  s()l(li(>rs.  When  need  arises,  it  may  he  called  ii|)(iii  to  net  as 
police,  tiiat  is,  to  i)rotect  the  people  a^^ainst  violence  and  sec 
that  the  laws  of  the  state  are  executed.  Because  the  f,niards- 
man  is  the  servant  of  the  state  he  may  not  l)e  called  iip(»ii  fur 
service  outside  the  limits  of  the  state  in  which  he  lives.  When 
need  arises,  however,  if  the  militia  is  called  upon,  the  ^'uards- 
men  may  volunteer  their  services  to  the  1  iiited  States  and  he- 
come  soldiers  in  the  regular  army  of  the  country.  When  the 
guard  is  called  upon  to  act  in  case  of  rioting  or  other  \iolence 
it  acts  as  the  regular  soldiers  do  upon  a  campaign. 

The  state  constabulary.  —  Some  states  ha\c  a  regular 
body  of  policemen  known  as  the  State  Constabulary  or  the 
State  Pohce.  Pennsylvania  was  the  first  state  to  organize 
such  a  body  of  ti'oopei's.  These  men  police  tlu^  whole  state 
as  the  policemen  do  the  cities.  In  case  of  trouble  they  can 
be  assembled  rapidly  to  check  the  disturbance  before  it 
has  made  headway.  Arrangements  have  been  made  b\- 
the  commander  of  the  troops  that  a  message  "  ( 'all  the  State 
Police,"  which  reaches  a  telephone  office,  has  precedence 
over  all  other  messages.  The  result  of  the  swift  sum- 
mons is  that  the  troopers  are  able  immediatel\'  to  get  on 
track  of  the  criminals  and  catch  them.  The  constabulary 
travel  in  pairs,  and  have  been  very  succe.s.sful  in  putting 
down  riots  and  in  apprehending  those  who  have  broken  the 
laws. 

Protective  laws.  —  Another  method  of  protection  by  the 
state  is  by  the  passing  of  protective  laws.  (See  Chapter 
XVTTI.)  Among  such  laws  passed  by  tin-  \arious  .states  are 
those  for  the  control  of  speeding  automobiles  ;  tho.se  com | id- 
ling manufacturers  to  install  safety  de\  ices  for  the  |)rotection 
of  workers  from  machinery;  those  re(|uiriiig  the  placing  of 
automatic  or  other  devices  for  the  control  of  fires;  those 


74 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


l)r()vi(ling  for  frequent  fire  drills  to  enable  employees  in  a 
factory  or  children  in  a  school  to  leave  the  building  quickly 
and  in  an  orderly  manner  in  case   need  arises.     Steamboat 


A  State  Trooper 
What  arc  his  duties?     How  would  you  get  his  help  in  case  of  need? 

and  railroad  companies  are  subject  to  regulations  pertaining 
to  the  safety  of  their  employees. 

Protection  by  the  nation.  —  But  the  care  taken  of  the 
citizens  by  the  local  unit,  the  county,  or  the  state  would  not 
protect  us  outside  the  borders  of  our  own  states.  In  such 
an  emergency  it  is  the  national  government  that  takes  care 


PliOTKCTlOX    OF    \AFK    AM)    I'lJi  (I'Kin'V 


I .) 


of  us.  It  is  the  duty  of  tlic  Uiitioiiiil  i:<»vcruru<'nt  to  i)n>t('ct 
us  from  inviisiou  froui  without  or  rclx'llion  from  witliiu. 
For  this  purpose  an  army  and  a  na\y  arc  maintained 
(see  Chapter  XXI);  forts  are  huilt  and  ('(luipixMl  with 
guns;  air])hines  fly  swiftly  tlu-ongh  the  air;  and  suhma- 
rines  scout  beneath  tlie  waters  of  the  ocean.     During  the 


(  nurtesu  of  liulhtrfnrd  Hn\inrr 

Thanspouti.vg  Tkoops  i.\  W.\u  Ti.mk 

The  Lriiathan  bringing  home   the   27th    Divi.sion    after    the    World    War. 
Compare  the  size  of  the  ships  in  the  picture. 


war  with  Germany  it  was  necessary  for  the  national  g«»\  ffu- 
ment  to  put  forth  especial  effort  to  protect  the  people  of  the 
United  States  from  harm,  and  to  help  the  alliecl  nation>  to 
make  the  world  a  safe  place  to  live  in.  Millions  of  men  and 
thousands  of  ships  had  to  be  armed  and  equii)pcd  before  the 
people  of  this  cimntry  could  be  safe  to  go  about  their  busi- 
ness in  peace. 


76  COMMUXrTY    CIVICS 

The  government  protects  us  not  only  on  the  land  but 
even  when  we  tra^•el  on  the  ocean.  Each  passenger  ship  is 
compelled  to  carry  a  wireless  outfit  that  help  may  be  sum- 
moned if  needed.  It  provides  maps  and  charts  that  the 
ship  may  find  its  way  about  the  ocean.  Along  the  coasts 
and  on  our  inland  lakes  and  navigable  rivers,  lighthouses 
are  built  and  maintained  and  buoys  are  placed  that  ships 
may  travel  in  safety.  If  ships  are  wrecked,  the  life-saving 
crews  maintained  along  the  shores  save  all  the  lives  they  can, 
even  placing  their  own  in  danger  that  ocean-going  travelers 
may  be  saved. 

In  a  previous  chapter  (see  Chapter  IV)  we  have  seen  that 
some  dangers  are  such  a  menace  to  the  nation  as  a  whole 
that  the  law-making  body  in  Washington,  Congress,  has 
passed  law^s  to  keep  us  safe  from  harm.  We  have  learned 
that  it  forbids  ships  having  people  with  contagious  diseases 
on  board  to  enter  any  harbor,  and  keeps  quarantine  stations 
outside  each  harbor  that  all  incoming  ships  may  be  examined. 
It  provides  for  the  inspection  by  government  officials  of  the 
great  slaughter  houses  and  meat-packing  establishments, 
so  that  no  diseased  animals  may  be  sold  for  food.  It  has 
passed  a  law  for  the  further  protection  of  our  health  by  forc- 
ing manufactured  food  to  be  made  in  a  clean  manner  and  to 
be  pure. 

The  government  builds  great  embankments  to  prevent 
the  destruction  of  homes  by  floods.  Along  the  Mis- 
sissippi there  are  hundreds  of  miles  of  such  embankments 
built  and  kept  in  repair  by  the  national  government. 
Sometimes  in  spite  of  the  greatest  care,  Nature  takes  its 
way,  and  laughs  at  the  puny  efi'orts  of  man  to  restrain  it. 
Great  floods  break  open  the  embankments,  many  lives 
are  lost,  and  thousands  of  dollars  worth  of  property  are 


i'KOTKCTION    OK    I. IKK    AND    I'l{()|■Klv•'l'^• 


7 


destroyed.  A  violent  storm  nearly  dcstroycfl  the  city 
of  Cia.lvoston,  hnt  the  j,n)vernincnt  lias  hnilt  a  u^eat  sea  wall 
which  lias  saved  the  city  from  fnrther  harm. 

"  Safety  first."  —  Among  some  larfje  eorijoralions,  snch  as 
railroad  corporations,  there  has  been  a  u'reat  disregard  \\>v  the 
lives  of  the  people  during  ^^^ 

past  years.     Not  many  JJiIb^^MJ'^^  gjiim.*.*! 

years  ago,  liowe\'er,  a 
movement  was  started  by 
the  railroads  which  has 
saved  the  lives  of  thou- 
sands and  prevented 
other  thousands  of  acci- 
dents. This  is  sometimes 
called  the  "  Safety  First " 
movement.  Posted  con- 
spicuously along  the  rail- 
road lines  are  the  words 
"  Safety  First."  Such 
notices  are  posted  in 
many  foreign  languages, 
so  that  those  who  cannot  read  Fnglish  ma\'  receive  warning. 
These  notices  indicate  that  the  safety  of  the  passengers  ami 
employees  must  come  before  any  other  consideration.  If  a 
person  wishes  to  cross  the  tracks  before  an  oncoming  train, 
this  advice  means  to  wait  until  the  tniin  has  gone  by  and 
the  road  is  safe.  If  there  is  a  short  cut  along  the  tracks  to 
one's  home,  this  notice  advises  the  longer  route  bec-ause  it  is 
safer. 

The  cry  has  been  taken  up  by  other  corporations,  and 
already  much  greater  care  is  exercised  to  prevent  accidents. 
Some   employers,    in  whose  workshops  injury  to   the  eyes 


Courlcxu  of  Safetu  InstUutc  of  America 

The  Right  Way  to  Get  Off  .k  Tiuh.ley 
Car 

Always  face  toward  the  front  of  the 
car.  Then  you  will  not  be  thrown  down 
if  the  car  starts  before  you  have  .stepped 
ofT. 


78  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

might  be  caused  by  flying  particles,  require  all  their  employees 
who  might  be  endangered  to  wear  protecting  glasses ;  others, 
in  whose  factories  the  lungs  of  the  employees  might  be 
filled  with  lint  or  noxious  gases,  have  taken  means  to  free 
the  air  of  such  impurities. 

As  we  review  all  the  care  taken  of  us  by  the  city  or  the 
village,  the  state,  and  the  nation,  w^e  wonder  why  so  many 
accidents  occur,  and  why  our  right  to  personal  security, 
to  "  safety  first,"  is  so  insecure.  It  is  because  people  do  not 
respect  the  rights  of  others,  or  are  careless  of  their  own  rights. 
When  people  train  themselves  to  quick  obedience  to  the  laws, 
when  they  learn  to  exercise  necessary  care,  one  by  one 
the  punishments  prescribed  by  government  for  disregarding 
the  laws  for  the  protection  of  ourselves  and  others  may  be 
repealed. 

Questions  for  Investigation 

1.  Has  your  state  a  constabulary  force?  How  is  it  organized? 
Where  are  its  sections  located  ?     How  would  you  summon  it,  if  needed  ? 

2.  Does  your  community  maintain  efficient  police  and  fire  depart- 
ments?    What  leads  you  to  this  conclusion  ? 

3.  How  great  power  does  the  chief  of  the  fire  department  have  ? 

4.  How  do  you  summon  the  police  and  the  fire  departments  ?  Do 
you  know  where  the  fire  alarm  box  nearest  to  yoiu-  home  is  located  ? 
The  nearest  police  station  ?  How  do  you  send  in  a  fire  alarm  ?  Wliat 
is  the  punishment  for  a  false  alarm  ? 

5.  Is  your  home  insured  ?  How  would  you  go  about  having  your 
home  insured  ? 

6.  WTiat  protection  has  your  community  against  fire?  W'hat 
apparatus  has  it  ? 

7.  What  were  the  early  means  of  fighting  fire  in  your  community? 

8.  What  do  you  mean  when  you  say,  "That  building  is  a  good  fire 
risk  "  ? 

9.  Which  do  you  think  is  the  more  efficient,  a  paid  or  a  volunteer  fire 
department  ?     Why  ? 

H).  How  does  an  American  citizen  in  a  foreign  coimtry  get  protec- 
tion if  needed ''. 


PROTKC'l'lOX    OF    I. IKK    AND    I'lvM  )|>K|{TV  79 

11.  In  what  ways  docs  the  state  protect  your  school?     \'our  home"/ 

12.  What  laws  and  regulations  has  your  state,  or  your  community, 
or  both,  passed  for  the  guidance  of  those  who  use  autcjinobiles?  What 
punishment  may  be  given  th(jse  who  l)reak  these  lawsY 

13.  When  has  the  federal  government  the  power  to  take  diargc  of  a 
state  government  to  ])rotect  it?  Can  you  give  any  examples  ..f  Mich 
protection  ? 

14.  What  measures  were  taken  during  the  War  witii  (icrmaiiy  to 
protect  this  country  from  enemy  attacks? 

15.  Write  a  comjjosition  on  one  of  the  following  subjects,  '"I'he  Work 

of  the  State  Constabulary, I'lie  Work   of  the   Marines  outside  the 

War  Zone,"  "Fire  Prevention." 


CHAPTER   VI 
GOVERNMENT  AND  PLAY 

There  is  an  old  proverb  with  which  most  boys  and  girls 
are  familiar,  "  All  work  and  no  play  makes  Jack  a  dull  boy." 
It  means  that  a  ])erson  who  never  plays  becomes  stupid  and 
is  not  so  well  able  to  do  his  work  as  the  one  who  takes 
some  rest  from  his  daily  task.  The  farther  people  ad- 
vance in  civilization,  the  more  they  understand  that  this 
proverb  is  true,  and  they  make  some  provision  in  their  life  for 
recreation.  Indeed,  play  has  come  to  be  regarded  as  so 
important  that  government  assists  in  vari(ms  ways  in  pro- 
viding means  of  recreation  for  the  people.  We  shall  see 
later  what  these  means  are  and  also  that  recreation  is  best 
enjoyed  when  it  is  under  proper  supervision. 

■Recreation  in  pioneer  times.  —  The  boys  and  girls  of 
pioneer  days  had  little  time  for  recreation.  Their  life  was 
too  hard  and  too  full  of  work  for  mucli  time  to  be  spent  in 
play.  In  New  England  particularly  play  of  most  sorts  was 
looked  upon  as  a  de\ice  of  Satan  to  steal  away  the  soul  of 
the  unwary  boy  or  girl  who  persisted  in  such  frivolous 
things.  A  visit  to  the  stocks  or  the  jail  might  be  the  pun- 
ishment of  an  older  person  who  thought  a  good  time  came 
before  work.  The  boy  who  played  in  church  on  Sunday 
was  pretty  apt  to  find  himself  before  the  solemn  magis- 
trate on  IVIonday  morning.  The  old  records  of  the  towns 
in  New  England  have  many  accounts  of  boys  and  girls  who 

80 


(i()VKI{\MK\'|'    AM)    l'L.\^  M 

were  brouii'lit  hvhn-c  such  ;l  jiKli^^c  on  the  iiK.niinj;  after  the 
vSabbiith  for  "rude  iind  idle  hchaxidr  in  the  clnu-ch  on  the 
Sabbath  and  for  hirfin^-  and  pullinj,'  the  hair  of  their  ur'i^U- 
bors."  One  of  the  eollefj;es  of  oik-  huiuhvd  and  thirty  years 
ago  had  a  rule  which  read  as  follows:  '"{'he  students  shall 
be  indulged  with  nothing  which  the  world  calls  play.  Let 
this  rule  be  observed  with  the  strictest  nicety,  for  those 
who  play  when  they  arc  xoung  will  play  when  they  are  (»ld." 

In  the  middle  and  southern  colonies  there  was  more  oppor- 
tiniity  for  the  children  to  let  oif  some  of  their  steam  dur- 
ing the  week  and  thus  be  able  to  behave  better  on  Sunda\  s. 
Playing  was  not  frowned  upon  as  it  was  in  the  New  lOng- 
land  colonies,  and  both  young  and  old  had  their  moments 
of  relaxation.  There  was  plenty  of  room  for  play.  People 
had  not  yet  begun  to  be  crowded  together  in  cities. 

When  the  people  of  tlu>  colonies  did  pla,\  they  played 
hard.  This  is  common  to  frontier  and  i)ioneer  hfe.  ]{<■- 
laxation  conies  so  seldom  that  ad\antage  is  taken  of  every 
minute  oft'ered.  The  government  of  the  time  did  not  have 
much  to  do  with  ])r()viding  means  for  recreation.  It  had 
more  to  do  with  controlling  those  whose  play  went  beyond 
reasonable  bounds.  In  the  southern  colonies  the  settlers 
enjoyed  horse  racing,  cock  fighting,  shooting  at  a  mark,  and 
various  sports  of  such  character.  On  special  occasion^  e\cn 
the  slaves  were  permitted  to  participate  in  the  fun.  The 
people  of  the  middle  colonies  took  their  fun  with  more  serious- 
ness than  did  those  of  the  south.  The  imi  or  taxcrn  was  a 
meeting  place  for  the  men,  s(»ine\\liat  a^  the  nioilirn  club  !•-. 
but  the  go\ernment  exercised  small  care  over  such  places, 
though  it  was  ready  enough  to  stop  anything  which  might 
lead  to  disorder.  All  these  methods  of  recreation  were  looked 
upon  with  disfavor  in  New  Kngland.     The  Ma.\    1  )a.\   fe^ti- 


82  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

val  of  one  of  the  settlements  came  into  such  disfavor  with 
the  authorities,  that  some  of  the  stricter  Puritans  went  to  the 
town,  cut  down  the  May-pole,  and  arrested  and  punished 
those  who  had  been  engaged  in  such  sinful  sport. 

Change  to  modem  times.  —  As  time  went  on  and  more 
people  began  to  crowd  together  in  the  cities  conditions 
changed.  To-day  such  a  rule  as  that  of  the  college  men- 
tioned above  would  not  be  tolerated.  The  Sabbath  of  not 
many  years  ago  was  a  day  when  a  walk  through  the  fields 
was  not  a  thing  to  be  even  mentioned.  So  great  a  change 
has  taken  place  that  to-day  the  fear  is  that  children  will 
not  get  enough  play.  The  idea  has  taken  hold  of  the  people 
that  if  there  are  to  be  in  the  future  strong,  brave,  and  happy 
men  and  women,  there  must  be  happy  children.  We  are  be- 
ginning to  learn  that  fresh  air,  good  food,  and  plenty  of  fun 
are  no  more  than  the  rightful  heritage  of  every  child — not 
only  this,  but  that  they  are  the  heritage  also  of  the  "  grown- 
ups." 

Such  ideas  have  been  brought  about  by  modern  conditions, 
which  are  widely  different  from  those  of  colonial  times.  The 
crowded  cities  made  impossible  much  space  for  recreation. 
The  play  formerly  enjoyed  by  the  young  people,  and  also  by 
the  older  members  of  society,  began  to  infringe  upon  the  rights 
of  others.  Boys  could  no  longer  play  ball  in  the  streets.  They 
hampered  traffic,  endangered  pedestrians,  and  caused  dam- 
age to  the  windows  of  the  neighborhood.  Girls  could  no 
longer  roll  their  hoops  or  play  other  games  in  the  streets 
without  danger  to  themselves.  The  long  hill  where  the 
bob-sleds  flashed  down  the  icy  street  was  no  longer  safe  for 
those  who  used  it  for  traffic,  and  the  "  bobbers  "  put  their 
own  lives  in  danger  on  each  ride.  As  such  conditions  arose, 
it   became   necessary   for  the  government  of  the  locality 


GOVERNMKXT    AND    1M,.\^' 


S3 


'  nitri,  si/  ,,/  Sa/ilu  InMluti  of  .Ir-j-  nci 
Ball  Playinu  in  Tiit  Street 

The   kind  of  accident  that  may  arise  from  innocent  fun.     What  should 
the  city  do  to  help  such  a  condition  as  the  pictures  show? 


84  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

to  step  in  and  put  a  stop  to  such  dangerous  practices,  or  at 
least  to  regulate  them  by  law.  They  might  be  innocent  in 
themselves,  but  with  the  changing  conditions  of  life,  they 
had  become  harmful  to  the  community. 

What  was  to  be  done  ?  All  play  could  not  be  stopped ; 
that  would  not  be  fair  to  the  boys  and  girls,  and  above  all 
else,  government  tries  to  be  fair.  The  population  of  many 
cities  grew  so  rapidly  that  the  problem  became  a  serious 
one.  Not  only  did  evil  places  begin  to  offer  a  means  of 
recreation  to  young  and  old,  but  groups  of  boys  and  young 
men,  "  gangs,"  began  to  disregard  the  law  entirely  in  their 
search  for  recreation.  Such  disregard  led  to  criminal  conduct, 
and  the  police  had  more  than  they  could  do  to  control  the 
lawlessness  which  sprang  up.  Such  a  disregard  of  law 
brought  about  crime,  and  as  a  result  the  cities  of  New  York 
and  Chicago,  together  with  the  other  large  cities  of  the 
country,  had  to  face  problems  which  seemed  almost  im- 
possible of  solution.  Slowly  but  surely,  however,  these 
problems  are  being  solved.  Cities  and  other  communities 
are  passing  laws  that  make  provision  for  proper  recrea- 
tion not  only  for  the  children,  but  also  for  older  people, 
who  because  of  city  limitations  have  nowhere  to  go  to  find 
that  relaxation  from  work  that  is  so  necessary  to  a  person's 
well-being. 

Playgrounds.  —  When  a  city  has  to  put  a  stop  to  the 
games  of  the  boys  and  girls  in  the  street  or  in  the  vacant 
lots  of  the  city,  because  they  have  become  a  nuisance  to  the 
neighborhood,  as  we  have  said  it  is  only  fair  that  some 
place  should  be  provided  by  the  municipal  government 
where  these  boys  and  girls  may  play  without  harm  to  others. 
Many  cities  have  done  this  by  the  establishment  of  parks 
and  playgrounds  free  to  all.     Here  a  ball  ground  is  laid  out, 


GOVKKXMKXT    AND    I'LAN  85 

tenuis  coui'ts  ;iiT  iikhIc,  swiii^^s  ami  otlici-  a|)|)aratus  tor 
l)ljiy  are  pr()\i(le(l  tor  all.  Tliesc  aic  used  iiiidcr  the  direc- 
tion of  older  i)e(>i)]e  who  arc  paid  \)\  the  city  antliorities  or 
from  i)rivate  funds.  Tlicsc  directors  of  t;anie>  are  p«Ts()ns 
who  ha\'e  heeii  ti'aiiied  1o  know  how  to  help  the  children  to 
Ikiac  a  ji'ood  time.  They  show  them  that  a  hetter  time 
may  be  had  by  observing;'  tlie  rights  of  others  than  i)y  i)lay- 
iuii'  without  regard  foi-  anythinu'  except  one's  own  hap])i- 
ness. 

School  and  play. — The  old-fashiom-d  districi  xhool 
made  provision  for  a  recess  in  tiie  middle  of  the  morninj; 
session  and  also  in  the  middle  of  the  afternoon  si-ssion. 
This  gave  the  children  a  chance  to  work  off  their  surplus 
enerfjcy  and  to  keep  in  <j;()od  health  by  outdoor  ])lay.  Land 
is  so  valuable  in  the  modern  city  that  it  is  not  ])ossible  in 
many  cases  to  provide  a  place  out  of  doors  which  the  chil- 
dren may  call  their  own,  but  the  modern  school  is  trying  to 
adapt  itself  to  such  conditions.  Man>-  schools  lia\-e  a 
gymnasium,  and  here  play  is  carried  on  imder  an  in>trnctor. 
Recently  New  York  State  has  gone  farther.  Its  legis- 
lature has  passed  a  law  which  makes  it  obligatory  that  the 
children  in  all  the  schools  of  the  state  shall  ha\t'  a  periixl  ui 
which  some  systematic  training  in  the  building  up  of  the 
body  shall  be  given.  Whenever  a  school  is  built  to-«lay, 
provision  is  made  in  some  way  for  recreation. 

Other  means  of  recreation.  Schoisl.  however,  doo 
not  take  uj)  all  the  time  of  the  children.  What  is  to  l)e  done 
for  the  other  times  when  they  wish  to  play".'  We  have  .seen 
how  city  governments  provide  jjlaygrounds  for  some.  Hut 
there  are  many  who.  for  one  reason  or  another,  cannot 
take  advantage  of  the  means  provided.  To  these  are  left 
the    citv    streets    with    their    dirt    and    danger.     Recently 


86 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


fourirxy  of  Safety  InstUuti  of  Aimrica 

One  of  the  Dangers  of  Street  Pi^t 


GOVERNMENT    AND    I'LAV 


S7 


the  city  of  New  York,  where  the  i)r(»hlein  of  play  is  es- 
pecially complicated,  recoi,niixiii<,f  the  vh^Ui  of  the  children 
to  play  free  from  danj^'cr,  has  set  aside  certain  streets  near 
which  there  are  no  parks  or  i)lay}i:rounds.     These  areas  are 


Ctiurlisydf  Sni'ty  tn^iuul,  nf  Ann  nca. 

Ome  of  the  Dangers  of  Street  Plav 

This  scries  of  three  pictures  demonstrates  the  need  for  city  playRrounds 
to  prevent  such  accidents  as  this.     Sec  also  jiaKC  S'.i. 

given  over  to  the  children  for  ])Ih\  ,  usually  uiulrr  the  sui)er- 
vision  of  older  persons.  Cities  with  a  water  front  sonu-- 
times  provide  municipal  docks.  Here  those  who  will  may 
enjoy  the  cooling  breezes  and  find  relief  from  the  torrid 
heat  of  the  city  streets  or  the  humid  odors  of  their  homes. 


88  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

Not  ()nl\-  do  the  school  and  the  municipal  authorities 
make  plans  so  that  the  children  and  older  persons  may 
luue  places  for  recreation,  but  the  state  and  the  nation  also 
have  set  aside  regions  under  the  control  of  state  and  national 
authority  for  such  a  purpose.  Many  states  have  set  aside 
portions  of  their  territory  as  state  parks  and  keep  them  for 


Courtesy  of  Forest  Service,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Cottages  at  Los  Angeles  Municipal  Camp  in  the  Angeles 
Forest 

the  pleasure  of  the  people.  Here  those  who  like  to  hunt 
may  go  in  the  proper  season.  The  brooks  are  stocked  with 
fish  for  the  ])leasure  of  the  fisherman.  Deer  and  other  wild 
animals  are  protected  by  the  state  laws  so  that  their  num- 
bers may  increase,  and  they  may  not  be  entirely  destroyed 
by  indiscriminate  hunting.  For  a  small  sum  any  one  is  per- 
mitted to  rent  a  plot  of  ground  for  camping  purposes,  and 
here  find  health  and  pleasure.     The  national  government 


GOVERNMENT    AND    I 'LAV  SO 

has  preserved  sfvcnil  of  the  most  hcantifiil  spots  (»f  t In- 
United  States  from  spoliation  and  reserved  tlirin  for  the 
use  of  present  and  future  {generations.  Tlie  "\'osemite 
Park  is  such  a  place  preserved  in  all  itsfiraiuicur  and  heanty 
for  the  pleasure  seeker. 

All  people  do  not  like  to  take  their  recreation  out  of 
doors.  To  many,  such  a  mode  of  life  does  not  appeal. 
They  prefer  to  read  a  book  at  home  or  to  ^^o  to  the  theater  or 
a  moving-picture  show.  Such  people  may  have  an  active 
life  out  of  doors  and  need  the  change  to  something  in- 
doors. To  assist  these  in  their  search  for  recreation,  munic- 
ipal governments  and  private  individuals  have  established 
free  libraries,  open  to  the  ])ul)lic,  where  one  ma\'  go  and 
read  or  may  borrow  books.  The  theater  and  the  "  mo\  ie," 
though  not  managed  by  the  municipality,  are  subject  to 
its  rules.  The  law-making  bodies  of  the  town  or  city  (see 
Chapters  XVI-XVII)  where  the  playhouses  are  erected  take 
care  of  the  safety  of  those  who  attend  by  regulating  the  mnn- 
ber  who  may  enter  such  buildings,  the  material  from  which 
they  are  built,  the  exits,  and  in  fact  all  that  jjcrtains  to 
the  safety  of  the  patrons  of  the  theaters.  In  many  states, 
the  state  government  steps  in  and  compels  mo\  ing-picture 
operators  to  be  licensed.  This  is  done  that  danger  ma\-  be 
eliminated  because  of  ignorant  or  careless  handling  of  the 
necessary  apparatus. 

Many  people  get  their  recreation  fn.m  gardens.  They 
think  that  working  in  the  soil  brings  rest  to  the  tired  mind 
and  body.  The  green  of  the  growing  plants,  the  song  of 
the  birds,  the  smell  of  the  upturned  soil  bring  to  man\  their 
greatest  recreation.  Remember  that  the  w()rd  means 
re-creation,  that  is,  creating  again.  The  govermnent  at 
Washington  helps  in  this  method,  too,  for  it   will  provide 


90  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

free  seeds,  both  vegetable  and  flower  seeds,  for  the  asking. 
Full  instructions  for  the  making  of  a  garden  may  be  ob- 
tained from  the  Department  of  Agriculture  (see  Chapter 
XXI),  which  is  the  department  of  the  government  that  pro- 
vides the  seeds. 

Corporations  and  recreation.  —  So  great  is  the  interest 
recently  aroused  in  scientific  recreation,  and  what  it  means 
to  health,  that  certain  practical  reforms  have  been  in- 
augurated by  large  business  organizations.  Great  corpora- 
tions w^ith  large  numbers  of  employees  have  learned  by  ex- 
perience that  these  employees  give  better  service  and  are 
more  efficient  in  every  way  if  legitimate  recreation  and 
amusement  is  provided  by  the  company.  For  such  reasons 
the  great  railroad  corjiorations  help  in  the  support  of 
different  societies,  that  their  men  may  find  there  a  place 
in  which  to  jjass  the  night  when  they  are  away  from  home, 
or  such  hours  as  they  are  off  duty.  Other  corporations 
maintain  at'  their  ow^n  expense  clubhouses  and  other 
places  of  recreation,  so  that  there  will  be  no  excuse  for 
their  employees  to  pass  their  time  in  questionable  resorts 
where  money  and  time  w^ould  be  ill  spent  and  working 
capacity  lowered.  Large  department  stores  proxide  rest 
and  recreation  rooms  for  their  workers.  IMany  corporations 
give  a  vacation  with  full  pay  to  those  who  work  for  them. 

The  governments  of  many  states  have  regulated  the 
hours  during  which  men  and  women  may  work,  thus  giving 
sufficient  time  for  recreation.  New  York  and  other  states 
regulate  tlie  hours  during  which  women  may  be  employed 
in  stores,  factories,  and  other  places  of  business.  As  we  have 
seen,  the  hours  during  which  children  may  be  employed  and 
the  age  at  which  they  may  go  to  work  are  regulated  by 
state  law  in  almost  every  state  in  the  Union. 


GOVERNMENT    AND    I'l.AV 


01 


The  Circus 


C'oiiTUsi/  o/  Kul/iirfiird  tldU'i'r- 


A    liAI.L  Gamk 
Two  fornirf  of  ri-crcatiun. 


(  i/ii.'/.  1/  ■;  /i ..;'.!-,'-■.•  J  II  ij 


92  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

Clubs  and  associations.  —  ^Nlany  people  find  their  recrea- 
tion in  clubs  or  societies.  Such  clubs  are  conducted  by  pri- 
vate means  to  jirovide  places  where,  by  the  payment  of  a  small 
sum,  any  one  may  share  in  the  ])ri\ilejies  of  the  building. 
The  gymnasium,  swimming  pools,  games  of  all  sorts,  the 
daily  papers  and  good  books  are  free  to  all  after  the  pay- 
ment of  the  dues.  Such  clubs  or  associations  are  the 
Y.  M.  C.  A.,  the  Y.  W.  C.  A.,  the  Young  :\Ien's  Hebrew  As- 
sociation, the  Knights  of  Columbus,  and  many  others  which 
are  less  pretentious.  Most  of  these  combine  moral  train- 
ing with  recreation.  "  A  sovmd  mind  in  a  sound  body  "  is 
their  motto.  Such  clubs  have  been  a  favorite  means  of 
fighting  the  "  gang  "'  spirit  which  is  found  in  many  cities. 
Without  proper  leadership,  boys'  clubs  degenerate  into 
"gangs,"  and  as  such  are  usually  in  trouble  with  the  officers 
of  the  law.  Properly  directed,  clubs  are  among  the  best 
ways  of  gaining  recreation. 

The  Boy  Scouts.  —  One  of  the  most  notable  movements 
which  has  for  its  object  the  control  of  a  bo\''s  recreation 
has  recently  been  granted  letters  of  incorporation  by  the 
national  government.  This  is  the  Boy  Scouts  of  America. 
It  has  for  its  object  the  "  patriotism  that  causes  the  boy  to 
love  his  country,  and  instead  of  boasting  about  it,  to  serve 
it  by  being  a  good  citizen."  The  recreation  hours  of  the 
boys  are  spent  in  drill,  in  learning  the  principles  of  the  Boy 
Scouts,  in  going  out  in  the  open,  in  learning  how,  through 
recreation,  to  be  honorable,  loyal,  obedient,  and  patriotic. 
So  great  has  been  the  success  of  the  movement  that  it  has 
spread  all  over  the  world,  —  even  in  far-away  New  Zealand 
there  are  troops  of  Boy  Scouts.  At  present  there  are  in  the 
United  States  nearly  400,000  boys  and  about  90,000  men 
interested   in  the  mo\'ement.     Although  the  movement  is 


GOVERXMKXT   AXD    PLA^' 


W.l 


not  at  all  military  in  its  conception,  yet  the  iicI^Miiu  Scouts 
and  those  of  Enji'land,  France,  and  the  Initcd  Sliites  per- 
formed valuable  services  to  their  respective  countries  diiriiij; 
the   great    European    war.     The    motto  of    the   Scouts    is, 


Boy  Scout  Camp 

"Be  Prepared";    the  oath  which  each  one  take^  when  he 
becomes  a  member  of  the  organization  is  as  follows: 
"  On  my  honor  T  will  do  my  best 

(1)  to  do  my  duty  to  God  and  my  country,  and  to  oixy 
the  scout  law  ; 

(2)  to  help  other  people  at  all  times ; 

(3)  to  keep  myself  physically  strong,   mentally   awake, 
and  morally  straight." 


94  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

The  (iirl  Scouts  jukI  the  Camp  Fire  Girls  are  associa- 
tions of  girls  which  provide  recreation  and  training  for  girls 
as  the  Scout  organization  does  for  boys. 

Need  of  supervision  of  recreation.  —  We  have  often 
spoken  above  of  the  need  for  supervision  of  jjlaygrounds. 
There  is  also  another  form  of  recreation  which  needs  com- 
petent aid  from  older  persons.  This  is  school  athletics. 
The  city  of  San  Francisco  believes  this  so  thoroughly  that 
it  has  organized  a  department  to  take  entire  charge  of  the 
athletics  in  the  schools.  Young  boys  and  girls  need  the 
guidance  of  older  heads  in  their  ball  games  and  other  forms 
of  play.  Sometimes  they  do  not  believe  this,  but  if  they  will 
stop  and  think  a  minute  they  will  see  the  need  of  such  super- 
vision. Young  people  need  care  because  they  are  apt  to  get 
injured  or  to  overdo.  Too  strenuous  games  do  more  harm 
than  good.  There  is  need  that  boys  and  girls  be  taught 
the  right  and  wrong  ways  of  recreation.  It  is  fitting  to  win 
a  game  if  it  is  won  honestly.  There  are  some  who  wish  to 
win  anyway,  thinking  that  the  winning  is  all  there  is  to  a 
game.  This,  however,  is  a  very  small  part.  What  the  game 
teaches  of  honor,  fairness,  and  the  right  spirit  towards  one's 
opponent,  and  the  satisfaction  to  be  gained  from  doing 
one's  best  even  if  beaten,  are  worth  much  more  than  the 
mere  winning.  Such  things  are  learned  by  experience, 
and  for  this  reason  it  is  a  good  thing  for  older  people,  who 
have  already  learned  by  experience,  to  have  charge  of  the 
recreation  of  those  who  are  younger  or  those  who  have  never 
had  the  experience  necessary  to  teach  proper  means  of 
recreation. 

Many  people  get  a  great  deal  of  their  recreation  on  our 
national  holidays.  In  former  times,  the  enjoyment  of  one  of 
them,  the  Fourth  of  July,  was  spoiled  by  the  kind  of  pleas- 


GOVERNMENT   AND   PLAY  95 

ures  indulged  in.  Dangerous  cxplosiNcs  und  diseases  arising 
from  wounds  inflicted  hy  them  caused  so  many  deaths  that 
government,  usually  local,  began  to  turn  its  attention  to 
putting  a  stop  to  the  dangerous  practices.  The  movement 
for  a  "  Safe  and  Sane  Fourth  of  Jul.\'  "  has  heen  very  wiile- 
spread.  For  many  years  there  was  a  long  list  of  killed  and 
injured  from  the  celebrations  in  the  diiVerent  towns.  The 
citizens  finally  awakened  to  the  fact  that  such  forms  of 
celel)ration  as  endangered  lives  were  not  justifiable.  The 
result  has  been  that  laws  have  been  passed  regulating  the 
sale  of  explosives,  other  means  of  celebrating  the  day  have 
been  provided,  doctors  have  made  ready  a  sufficient  supply 
of  serums  to  administer  in  case  of  injury,  and  children  ha\e 
been  taught  to  be  careful  in  the  use  of  fire  crackers  and  other 
explosives.  The  death  rate  and  the  number  of  those  injurecl 
have  been  very  materially  lessened,  and  yet  excry  one  has 
had  just  as  good  a  time  as  previously. 

Reasons  for  recreation.  — Why  is  it  necessary  for  e\er\' 
one  to  take  recreation  of  some  sort,  in  .some  way  or  (»ther? 
Why  does  government  interfere  and  in  many  cases  regulate 
the  number  of  hours  people  may  work?  What  is  there 
about  recreation  that  is  so  needful,  besides  the  fact  that 
it  is  fun?  First  of  all,  the  body  and  mind  are  like  a 
steel  spring,  w^hich,  if  kept  tightl\'  coiled  for  a  long  time, 
will  break.  Minds  and  bodies  need  relaxati(»n  and  re^t 
from  labor,  or  else  they  will  give  out.  Thi--  i--  the  reason  why 
so  many  people  have  nervous  breakdowns  and  other  nervous 
diseases.  The  tired  muscles  need  the  relaxation  of  (piiet. 
the  tired  mind  needs  the  (piiet  ami  jx-ace  of  the  out-i«f-(l(.<.r- 
or  the  restful  book.  Boys  and  girls  need  vacations  from 
school  work  and  older  people  need  vacations  from  their 
labor.     Second,  it  is  good  to  have  a  change  of  scene,  (.f  sur- 


96  COMMUNITY  nvics 

roundings,  to  see  new  faces.  This  helps  the  miiid  and  body 
to  rest.  Third,  it  gives  us  a  new  view  of  Hfe.  ^lany  people 
become  so  attached  to  their  work  that  without  rehixing 
they  see  nothing  but  their  Httle  narrow  treadmill  of  work. 
This  makes  them  narrow-minded ;  they  do  not  get  the  best 
things  from  life  and  miss  a  great  deal  of  happiness  which 
might  be  theirs  if  they  had  a  proper  amount  of  recreation. 

(rovernment  is  interested  in  recreation  because  of  the 
effect  it  has  in  bettering  citizenship.  To  j^rovide  attractive 
playgrounds  for  boys  and  girls  where  they  will  get  beneficial 
exercise  and  wholesome  enjoyment  in  the  form  of  games,  is 
to  lessen  idleness  and  the  evils  which  go  with  it,  which  are  so 
harmful  to  young  people.  To  provide  public  baths  and  whole- 
some entertainment  in  which  people's  bodies  and  minds  may 
b?  re-created  is  to  lessen  the  evils  which  are  in  every  crowded 
city.  Playgrounds  reduce  j^nenile  crime,  for  almost  all 
juvenile  delinquency  is  misdirected  play. 

Education  through  play.  —  Play  has  great  educational 
value.  It  (knelops  the  force  which  makes  the  energetic 
adult.  It  trains  for  practical  life.  "  If  a  boy  would  pre- 
pare himself  for  politics  and  affairs,  where  will  he  get  a  better 
experience  than  in  the  leadershij)  and  organization  of  the 
playground?"  By  ])lay  judgment  is  trained.  It  is  neces- 
sary only  to  watch  a  ball  game  to  see  that  unerring  judg- 
ment must  be  formed,  and  that  instantly,  in  order  to  make 
a  successful  play.  The  very  fact  that  the  ball  game  is  the 
play  of  a  team  and  not  one  person's  efforts,  is  of  especial 
value.  The  most  successful  team  is  the  one  in  which  all  its 
members  play  together  and  thus  learn  that  they  succeed  best 
who  work  hardest  for  the  interests  of  all. 

Play  rightly  directed  trains  the  will  power,  teaches  good 
sportsmanship,  and  arouses  a  sense  of  justice  and  honesty. 


GOVERNMENT    AND    I'LAV  07 

A  great  firm  of  mercliiiiits  in  one  of  our  largest  eities  ik-mt 
hires  a  man  who  comes  from  certain  schools.  The  lirm 
found  that  athletics  in  those  schools  were  crooked  and  that 
the  men  from  those  schools  could  not  he  trusted.  TIm-  right 
kind  of  play  teaches  democracy.  "  You  have  to  deliver  the 
goods  if  you  stay  on  the  ball  team,  though  your  father  is  a 
millionaire."  It  arouses  a  spirit  of  obedience  to  law,  of 
friendliness,  and  of  loyalty.  Play  teaches  boys  and  girls  to 
think  in  terms  larger  than  themselves  and  "  be  willing  to 
work  unselfishly  for  the  city,  the  country,  and  the  organiza- 
tion to  which  they  belong."  The  person  who  thinks  only 
of  himself  and  his  own  welfare  is  a  bad  citizen.  The  person 
who  always  conceives  of  himself  as  a  member  of  a  larger 
whole  to  which  his  loyalty  is  due  is  a  good  citizen.  Presi- 
dent Cleveland  said  that  every  person  should  keep  through 
life  some  form  of  play,  because  that  was  the  onl\-  way  a  man 
could  remain  a  good  comrade.  Good  comradeshii)  is  the 
basis  upon  wdiich  our  life  with  one  another  is  built. 

Questions  for  Ixvkstkjatiox 

1.  How  many  parks  has  your  community?  What  are  tlie  rules  of 
the  parks  which  govern  your  actions  while  you  are  there?  What  are 
the  names  of  your  parks?     What  is  the  reason  for  the  name  of  each? 

2.  Should  the  community  fix  the  luimber  of  its  jiarks  in  proportion 
to  the  number  of  the  peoi)le  of  the  eommuuity? 

3.  Should  the  eouuuunity  provide  l)aseltall  grounds  and  tennis  courts 
for  its  citizens  ?     Why  ? 

4.  Have  you  a  Pubhe  Schools  Atliletic  League  in  your  ((.inmiuiity  ' 
W'rite  a  composition  on  the  advantages  of  such  a  U-ague. 

5.  Make  a  list  of  the  means  of  recreation  proviiled  by  your  <(.m- 
munity.     Are  any  means  of  recreation  lacking  from  this  list  ?     Why  ? 

6.  What  places  suitable  for  hunting,  fishing,  or  cami>ing  dews  your 
state  or  the  federal  government  or  both  provide? 

7.  Does  your  state  do  anything  to  stock  the  streams  with  fi>li  or  the 
woods  with  game?     If  so,  what? 


98  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

8.  What  are  some  of  tlie  laws  of  yoiir  state  for  the  protection  of  wild 
game  ? 

9.  What  did  your  commiinity  do  during  the  war  against  (icnnany  in 
making  war  gardens  ?     Was  this  recreation  ? 

10.  What  are  some  of  the  duties  requu-ed  of  you,  if  you  go  hunting 
or  fishing  on  a  state  preserve,  in  return  for  the  privileges  you  receive 
there  ? 

11.  How  many  books  have  you  drawn  from  the  public  or  school 
library  and  read,  during  the  past  year?  What  l)ooks  interested  you 
most  ?     Why  ? 

12.  May  a  boy  take  out  a  gun  if  he  is  under  sixteen  years  of  age? 
Why? 


CTIAITKR    VII 
TRANSPORTATION 

The  Indian  trail.  WIumi  the  first  colonists  cmiiic  to 
Amcrit'ii,  they  foiiiui  (hin  trails  leading  here  and  there, 
throuiih  the  dark  and  leafy  recesses  of  the  forest.  I-'or  many 
years  these  paths  had  been  the  hijijhways  of  the  Indians. 
TTow  many  years  they  had  been  used  we  do  not  know,  but 
so  very  many  that  the  trails  were  deeply  worn,  some  of  them 
being  a  foot  in  depth,  where  countless  feet  had  jiressed  into 
the  earth.  They  were,  however,  only  about  fifteen  inches 
wide,  only  wide  enough  for  the  hunters  and  warriors  to  go  in 
"  Indian  file."  There  were  trails  for  hunting,  trails  used  in 
war,  ri\-er  trails,  trade  trails,  and  ])ortage  trails.  "  The 
origin  of  these  trails  and  the  selection  of  the  routes  pursued 
were  the  natural  results  of  the  every-day  necessities  and 
inclinations  of  the  Avandering  race  first  inhabiting  the  land, 
and  time  had  gradually  fashioned  the  \ar\ing  interests  of 
successive  generations  into  a  crude  system  of  general  thor- 
oughfares to  which  all  minor  routes  led.  .  .  .  In  general 
appearance  these  roads  did  not  dillVr  iii  any  i);uti(ular  from 
the  ordinary  woods  paths  of  the  present  da>  .  .  .  but  a 
somber  silence,  now  and  then  interrui)ted  by  the  songs  of 
birds  or  the  howling  of  wild  beasts,  reigned  along  these 
paths." 

The  main  trails  in  the  east  were  tiie  Old  C'onnecticut 
Path,  celebrated  by  a  great  American  novelist  as  the  "  Bay 

99 


100  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

Path,"  stretching  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  Hudson 
River.  From  the  Hudson,  near  where  the  city  of  Albany 
now  stands,  to  the  Niagara  River  ran  the  Iroquois  trail, 
the  scene  of  many  a  bloody  fight  and  many  a  deadly  ambush. 
The  Kittaning  Path  passed  through  the  lower  part  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. Xemacolin's  Path,  one  which  had  to  do  with  much 
of  our  American  history,  ran  along  the  Potomac  and  Ohio 
rivers ;  while  yet  farther  to  the  south  through  Virginia  and 
Kentucky,  the  "  dark  and  bloody  ground,"  ran  the  Virginia 
Warriors'  Path.  Of  these  the  Iroquois  trail  and  the  Y'lr- 
ginia  Warriors'  Path  were  used  principally  as  war  trails, 
while  the  Kittaning  Path  was  a  trading  trail.  Where  these 
trails  ended,  there  were  others  which  led  far  into  the  bound- 
less West  whose  names  it  will  not  be  necessary  for  us  to  recall. 

In  connection  with  these  trails  were  the  "  portages." 
These  were  so  named  by  the  French  because  at  these  places 
in  the  different  trails  it  was  necessary  to  carry  the  boats 
and  their  contents  about  some  obstruction  in  the  stream 
or  from  one  stream  to  another.  Streams  made  a  portion 
of  every  trail  where  possible.  It  was  easy  to  go  in  a  canoe 
along  the  rivers,  but  the  portages  were  oftentimes  very 
difficult.  We  shall  find  that  later  these  portages  were  im- 
portant points  in  our  knowledge  of  transportation,  for  here 
very  often  towns  sprang  up  which  became  great  centers  of 
industry. 

When  the  colonists  came  to  America,  they  settled  on  or 
near  some  one  of  the  many  streams  which  empty  into  the 
ocean.  The  river  they  settled  on  gave  them  fresh  water  to 
use  and  an  easy  means  of  transporting  whate\'er  they  mig;ht 
find  in  the  woods.  Indeed,  so  interlocked  were  the  streams 
in  Virginia  that  that  state  was  much  later  than  others  in 
the  building  of  roads.      It  did  not  need  them.     This  did 


TRANsro  I  rr  AT  I  ()\  liil 

not  suffice  for  loiifj  in  most  of  the  colonics,  however,  for  ;is 
many  other  settlers  eanie,  roads  were  needed  to  traiisj)ort 
them  and  their  belongin<,'s  to  their  j)laee  of  settlement.  (Jov- 
ernment  quickly  saw  the  need  of  roads,  for  the  (ienend 
Court  of  Massachusetts  in  1(5:^9  established  the  Coast  I'lith 
from  IMymouth  to  Boston.  It  was  found  that  the  easiest 
way  to  make  a  road  was  to  follow  the  Indian  trails,  so  they 
w^ere  widened  and  soon  were  fit  for  wa^M)ns  iis  well  as  for 
those  who  went  afoot  or  on  horseback.  As  still  more  people 
came  and  began  to  go  to  the  westward,  again  the  Indian 
trails  were  used,  the  roads  following  the  path  trodden  so 
many  years  by  the  natives. 

In  New  York  State,  the  Hudson  River  and  the  Irocpiois 
trail  gave  easy  access  into  the  interior.  The  Mohawk 
River  could  not  be  entered  from  the  Hudson  because  the 
"  Ga-ha-oose  "  (Cohoes)  falls  stretched  a  barrier  across. 
So  from  the  Hudson  there  was  a  long  portage  about  these 
falls  across  the  sand  plains  to  the  west  of  Albany.  .\t  the 
end  of  this  portage,  Arendt  Xnn  Curler  and  other  inhabit- 
ants of  Fort  Orange  (Albany),  going  west,  founded  a  town 
to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  Schenectady.  1-Vom  this 
point  the  river  w'as  clear,'  except  a  ])ortage  about  a  swift 
fall  near  the  present  city  of  Little  Falls,  until  the  site  of  {''ort 
Stan  wax  (Rome)  was  reached.  From  here  there  was  a  carry 
to  Wood's  Creek,  and  this  led  to  Lake  Oneida,  t'nun  which 
the  Oswego  River  flowed  into  I.ak''  Ontarii).  At  Wood's 
Creek  the  trail  branched  off,  one  branch  g()iug  as  described, 
and  the  other  going  westward  through  the  forests  until  it 
joined  with  many  other  trails  at  the  lower  falU  of  the 
Genesee  River.  The  story  of  New  Kiigland  and  New  ^'ork 
is  the  story  of  the  other  states,  for  along  the  trails  of  the 
Indians  went  the  tide  of  emigration  which  flowed  westward. 


102  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

Early  roads.  — The  trails  did  not  lono-  suffice  for  the  flood 
of  migration,  and  the  early  colonial  governments  made  pro- 
vision for  the  building  of  roads.  These  early  roads  were 
sometimes  built  by  the  state  and  sometimes  by  private  com- 
panies, which  received  a  charter  from  the  government  as 
any  other  business  organization.  Here  and  there  along  the 
roads  houses  were  built,  and  stretching  out  from  them  across 
the  road  was  a  gate  which  was  usually  closed.  These 
gates  were  known  as  toll  gates,  for  here  each  one  who  used 
the  road  was  compelled  to  pay  a  toll  before  the  gate  would 
be  opened  so  that  he  might  pass  through.  The  money  so 
paid  went  to  the  profit  of  the  company  which  built  the  road, 
or  to  the  state,  but  a  sufficient  amount  was  used  to  keep  the 
road  in  repair.  In  later  times  the  road  was  built  of  heavy 
planks,  and  was  known  as  a  "  plank  "  road. 

By  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  when  the 
little  nation  was  expanding  rapidly,  the  numbers  of  those 
who  were  "  going  west,"  that  is,  across  the  Alleghanies,  was 
very  great.  In  1S02  the  state  of  New  York  passed  a  bill 
for  the  building  of  a  road  from  a  crossing  place  of  the  Mohawk, 
now  Utica,  to  a  town  a  hundred  miles  farther  west,  named 
Geneva.  From  here  it  was  aftei'ward  prolonged  to  a  settle- 
ment made  by  a  Colonel  Rochester  at  the  falls  of  the  Genesee 
River.  It  was  a  continuation  of  the  road  already  built  by 
private  means  from  Schenectady  to  Utica.  To-day  it  is 
easy  to  trace  the  old  Genesee  road,  for  the  cities  of  Utica, 
Syracuse,  Auburn,  Geneva,  and  Rochester,  all  have  a  Genesee 
Street,  in  most  of  them  the  principal  street  of  the  city.  After 
the  building  of  the  road,  wagons  began  to  run  frequently 
between  Albany  and  Geneva.  "  A  wagon  could  carry 
fourteen  barrels  of  flour  eastward,  and  in  about  a  month 
could  return  to  (icneva  with  a  load  of  needed  supplies.     In 


TKAXSI'OK'I'A'I'ION 


lO.S 


five  weeks,  one  winter,  [\\v  luiiidred  seventy  slei^dis  e;irr\  inj,' 
families  passed  tliroiifj;li  (iene\'a  to  lands  farther  west."  It 
is  evident  that  government  was  doing  much  for  the  |)('o])Ic 
when  it  built  roads  for  their  easy  passage  Ironi  one  end  of 
the  state  to  the  other. 


A  Stage  Coach 


Courtesy  of  Rutherford  Hayner 


This  coach  is  not  much  different  from  those  used  in  an  early  jieriod  of  our 
history  and  is  still  in  use.  For  sucli  vehicles  transportiition  over  the  early 
roads  was  beset  with  many  difficulties. 


Roads  in  the  South.  This  act i\  it y  on  the  ])art  of  go\crn- 
ment  in  the  North  to  ])ro\ide  in.eims  of  tran>|>ortation  for 
these  who  wished  to  migrate  and  for  their  jjrodnee  was 
surpassed  in  the  South.  Along  Nemaeolin's  Path  and  the 
Virginia  Warriors'  Trail,  the  close  of  the  Revohitionarx  War 
saw  great  numbers  passing  to  the  West.  Need  arose  for 
easier  passage,  as  in  the  North,  and  again  government  took  a 
hand.     As  has  been  said,  when  the  Uuul  was  iirst  settled  in 


104  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

Virginia  the  settlers  found  that  they  could  go  almost  any- 
where from  one  settlement  to  another  by  boat  and  that  they 
could  even  ship  their  tobacco  from  their  own  wharves  at  the 
river  front ;  so  they  did  not  pay  much  attention  to  roads.  As 
time  went  on,  however,  the  same  conditions  began  to  exist 
in  Virginia  as  in  New  England  and  New  York,  and  Toads 
became  necessary.  The  young  man  Washington  was  one 
of  the  first  to  go  to  the  West  and  he  followed  Nemacolin's 
Path.  When  he  became  President,  he  was  a  very  strong 
advocate  of  the  building  of  roads  by  the  national  govern- 
ment . 

The  Cumberland  Road.  —  Washington  did  not  live  to  see 
his  ideas  carried  out,  but  it  was  not  long  after  his  death 
that  the  national  government  began  the  first  national  road. 
This  was  called  the  Cumberland  Road.  It  stretched  from 
Cumberland  in  Maryland  almost  straight  west  to  the  IMissis- 
sippi  River.  This,  too,  followed  an  Indian  trail.  It  was 
sixty  feet  wide,  made  of  broken  stone  small  enough  to  pass 
through  a  three-inch  ring,  then  covered  with  gravel,  and 
rolled  with  an  iron  roller.  The  road  was  a  toll  road  with 
"  tolls  for  all  sorts  of  animals  and  wagons."  It  was  built 
under  the  supervision  of  army  engineers  and  set  an  ex- 
ample for  all  the  engineering  projects  afterward  carried  on 
by  the  government.  Soon  passenger  coaches  were  rush- 
ing along  the  road  at  a  rate  of  ten  miles  an  hour.  There 
were  canvas-covered  freight  wagons  which  carried  ten  tons, 
"  had  rear  wheels  ten  feet  high,  and  were  drawn  by  twelve 
horses."  With  all  this  traffic  the  West  was  settled  rapidly. 
This  road  was  really  the  main  link  for  many  years  between 
the  East  and  what  was  then  the  West,  the  land  beyond 
the  Alleghanies,  and  joined  them  more  closely  together.  This 
close  connection  kept  the  West  from  withdrawing  from  the 


THAXSI'OinWTION  105 

union  of  states  on  the  Atlantic  and  I'orniinu  h  separate 
nation. 

Canals.  Rates  of  freif,dit  were  still  very  liij,'li  owin^;  to  the 
(iilHculties  of  transi)ortation,  and  very  early  in  our  history  the 
minds  of  our  law  makers  were  turned  toward  finding'  means 
whereby  the  ])r()duets  of  the  East  and  the  West  mi^ht  he 
exchanged  more  cheaply.  Our  jfovernment  from  the  very 
beginning;  has  had  the  problem  of  transportation  as  one  of 
its  chief  i)roblems.  There  were  many  in  the  early  history 
of  our  country  who  did  not  believe  tiiat  go\ernment  had  any 
right  to  pay  attention  to  such  a  matter,  because,  they  said, 
the  Constitution  did  not  gixc  permission  to  do  such  a  thing. 
The  building  of  the  Cumberland  Hoad,howe\'er,strengtiu'ned 
the  argument  for  the  government,  and  after  a  time  o])posi- 
tion  died  out.  One  of  our  great  statesmen,  Albert  (lallatin, 
proposed  a  system  of  canals  to  allow  ships  along  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  to  take  an  inside  course  and  so  a^■oid  tlie  stormy 
winds  along  the  coast.  Washington  was  an  adxiicate  of  a 
canal  system.  Wliere  tiiere  were  waterways  peo])le  could 
ship  their  produce  easily  and  cheaply.  Traliic  along  the 
Mohawk  River  had  grown  so  heavy  that  it  was  impossible  to 
handle  it,  and  the  statesmen  of  Xew  ^'ork  State  felt  that  in 
order  to  kee])  the  trade  from  going  down  the  St.  Lawrence 
River,  something  must  be  done. 

The  Erie  Canal.  —  For  many  years  there  had  Ix-en  talk 
of  a  canal  across  New  York  State,  but  it  r<inaine<l  for  1  )t\\  itt 
Clinton,  governor  of  the  state,  to  i)uild  the  canal.  Many 
ridiculed  the  idea,  and  nicknamed  the  project  "  (  jinton's 
Ditch  "  ;  but  he  fought  for  his  idea,  since  he  sawtlieinunen.se 
advantage  it  would  be  to  the  state  and  al-o  to  the  nation. 

The  first  s])a(leful  of  soil  was  dug  on  .bil\  1.  1M7.  at  Home. 
N.  Y.     The  digging  of  the  canal   was  a  tremenilous  task. 


100 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


The  canal  "  forged  straight  ahead  where  no  foot  but  the 
silent  hunter's  had  stepped ;  its  course  was  marked  by 
forests  so  dark  that  the  surveyor's  stake  could  hardly  be 
distinguished  in  the  gloom.  It  was  not  built  on  the  ground, 
but  dug  through  the  ground.  .  .  .  No  work  in  America 
before  its  time  began  to  compare  in  magnitude  with  grubbing 
that  sixty-foot  aisle  of  the  straggling  mass  of  roots  and 


Courtisy  of  New  York  State  Engineer 
A  Motor  Barge  on  the  Barge  Canal  in  New  York  State 
This  is  the  most  recent  development  in  canal  transportation. 

fibre,  from  Lake  Erie  to  the  Hudson,  and  the  digging  of  a 
forty  foot  canal  in  its  center." 

The  canal  was  completed  in  1825.  It  had  taken  eight 
years  to  build  and  had  cost  nearly  eight  million  dollars. 
A  grand  fete  was  planned  to  celebrate  its  completion.  Boats 
were  made  ready  to  carry  Governor  Clinton  and  other 
notables  to  New  York.  Among  these  boats  was  one  named 
the  "  Noah's  Ark,"  as  it  had  on  board  two  eagles,  a  bear. 


I'RANSPornwTiox  107 

some  ftiwns.fislu's,  and  Mrds.hcsidcst  wo  Indian  hoys.  'I'licsr 
were  carried  to  xXevv  ^'(^rk  as  i)ntdn(ts  of  ih.-  \V»  ^1.  'I'wo 
kef^^s  of  Lake  Erie  wat(>r  were  put  upon  one  of  tlic  l.outs.  :ind 
when  the  procession  reached  New  ^'ork.  tli<'  Covcrnor 
solemnly  i)oured  the  water  from  the  keys  into  tlic  Allanlic, 
thus  sym})oh/Jn,n-  tlie  joininj";  of  the  lakes  to  the  ocean. 

Now  the  journey  from  New  York  to  HulValo  hccanic  com- 
paratively easy.  P'ive  "  packet  "  hoats  were  i)nt  (.n  for  the 
convenience  of  passengers.  The  boats  were  allowed  to  go 
at  a  speed  of  five  miles  an  hour,  and  the  fare  was  h\c  cents 
a  mile.  It  took  six  days  to  make  the  journey  !  Freight 
rates  fell  to  such  a  degree  that  "  a  man  who  had  hccn  selling 
his  wheat  for  thipty  cents  now  received  a  dollar  for  it,"  yet 
the  easterner  could  buy  wheat  for  a  much  smaller  i)rice  he- 
cause  of  the  lowering  of  the  freight  rates.  Populati«»n  in- 
creased by  leaps  and  bounds,  and  cities  along  ilie  canal  at 
once  sprang  up  because  of  the  great  traflic  and  tlu-  great 
migration  of  i)(>oi)le.  At  the  present  time  the  canal  has 
been  transformed  into  a  barge  canal  at  an  c.\i)ense  of  (»ne 
hundred  million  dollars.  It  is  possible  now  for  small  ships 
to  sail  from  the  western  coast  of  the  United  States  and 
unload  at  one  of  the  lake  ports. 

The  building  of  this  canal  was  followed  by  that  of  many 
others.  For  some  time  they  were  \-ery  succ«'ssfid  and 
added  much  to  the  de\'elopment  of  the  country  ;  but  a  new 
means  of  transportation,  which  caiiic  into  use  shortly  after 
the  building  of  the  Erie  Canal,  ])nt  a  stop  to  lli<'  n-e  of 
canals  and  many  soon  fell  into  decay. 

Steamboats.  —  During  the  period  of  canal  building  the 
steamboat  had  been  coming  into  use  (»n  the  ri\('r>  of  the 
country  and  one,  the  Sat'dinidli  (ISIO).  had  actually  crossed 
the  ocean.     These  steamboats,  with  the  canals  and  the  im- 


108 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


TRANSI'OIM'A'I'ION 


10!) 


proved  roads,  gave  great  impetus  to  luigratioii  to  the  \\\>t 
and  to  commerce..  Steamboats  were  usually  owned  hy 
private  corporations,  and  govcrnnuMit  did  not  lia\e  nuicli 
to  do  with  tliem  during  tiiis  j)eri()d  except  to  make  regula- 
tions for  the  safety  of  the  passengers. 

Railroads. —  At  about  the  time  of  the  opening  of  tlie  Erie 
Canal,  as  we  have  said  in  a  previous  paragraph,  another 
kind  of  transportation  was  beginning  to  attract  attention. 
This  was  the  raih'oad.     'Jlie  railroads  had  a  great  deal  of 


Courtesy  of  New  York  Central  Uallroad 

DeW  ITT  Clinton 

First  trtiiii  on  what  is  now  a  part  of  the  New  York  Central  lines,  ronipared 
with  a  modern  locomotive. 


opposition  at  first.  People  said  "  farnicrs  would  he  ruined. 
Horses  would  have  to  l)e  killed  because  they  would  be 
wholly  useless.  There  would  be  no  market  for  oats  or  hay. 
Hens  would  not  lay  eggs  because  of  ilu-  noise.  It  would 
cause  insanity.  There  would  be. constant  fires  because  of 
the  sparks  from  the  engine."  Yet  in  spite  of  these  objections, 
and  many  others  that  would  sound  as  silly  as  those  which 
have  been  given,  it  was  not  long  before  several  ro;ids  were 
in  use.  The  next  year  after  the  completion  of  the  canal,  tin- 
legislature  in  Albany  granted  a  franchise  to  a  company  to 


110 


COMMUNITY    CIVICS 


buikl  ii  railroad  from  Albany  to  Schenectady.  This  was 
soon  followed  by  many  others.  By  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  railroads  were  covering  a  large  part  of  the 
country  east  of  the  ]\Iississip])i. 

A  great  many  of  these  railroads  followed  the  old  Indian 
trails  and  ])()rtages.     The  Boston  and  Albany  followed  the 


The  Twentieth  Century  Limited 

Twenty-hour   train   between    New   York   and   Chicago,  hauled  by   electric 
engine  between  New  York  and  Harmon,  a  distance  of  thirty-two  miles- 

Old  Connecticut  Path,  the  New  York  Central  the  Iroquois 
Trail.  The  Delaware  and  Hudson  for  a  part  of  its  distance 
followed  the  Great  Carrying  Place  from  the  Hudson  to  Lake 
Champlain,  the  Maumee-Wabash  Trail  is  followed  by  the 
Wabash  railroad,  and  the  Pennsylvania  railroad  follows 
various  Indian  trails  and  portages. 

In  1862  so  great  was  the  need  of  a  railroad  across  the 
continent  that  in  spite  of  the  war  then  raging,  the  govern- 


TRANSPOirPA'IMOX  HI 

ment  loaned  to  different  companies  the  shim  of  siil ,()()(»,()( id  to 
build  eitiier  main  or  hraiicli  lines.  It  also  i^rantcd  to  the 
roads  lai-<;t'  tracts  of  laud  as  bonuses  where  the  railroad  went 
through  territory  not  sufliciently  settled  to  su|)|)ort  it  until 
settlers  should  conic.  This  was  done  to  helj)  the  jjopulating 
of  the  West,  for  the  government  knew  it  was  helping  the 
country  when  it  helped  tlie  roads. 

In  1917,  because  of  the  great  difficulties  attending  the 
transporting  of  troops  and  supi)lies  for  the  u>e  of  the  troo|)s  in 
Europe,  the  federal  govermueut  took  control  of  the  railroads. 
Government  officials  were  placed  in  charge  and  emj)loyces 
who  threatened  to  strike  were  made  to  see  that  their  act  was 
treason  to  the  country.  Wages  of  railroad  workers  were 
raised,  as  were  also  freight  and  passenger  rates.  The  rail- 
roads were  given  back  to  the  owners  in  l!LM). 

The  Panama  Canal.  — The  greatest  project  (•;irrie<l  on  by 
the  government  for  the  ])r()moti()u  of  trausj)ortation  is  the 
Panama  ("anal.  Like  the  Cumberland  Uoad  it  was  built 
by  government  engineers.  Ever  since  Columbus  di.scovered 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  sailing  up  the  Chagres  River  to  within 
fifteen  miles  of  the  Pacific,  a  waterway  across  the  isthmus 
had  been  the  dream  of  exi)l()rer  and  settler.  In  ISSl  a  l-'rench 
company  had  been  formed  to  dig  a  canal  across  the  i-^thinus, 
but  extravagance  and  bad  management  ruined  the  couij)any. 

It  had  long  been  the  popular  idea  that  the  Tuited  States 
should  build  and  operate  a  canal  across  the  isthnuis.  As 
early  as  1825  Henry  Clay  spoke  strongly  in  favor  of  it. 
Presidents  Jackson  and  Grant  urged  that  it  be  built.  Noth- 
ing was  acc()mi)lished,  however,  until  in  Is'lO  Presidt-nt 
McKinley  appointed  a  commission  to  select  a  route.  The 
Panama  route  was  chosen.  Negotiations  with  the  republic 
of  Colombia  having  failed,  the   Paiwima  Canal   Zon.-    was 


112 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


Courtesy  of  Panama  Canal,  Washington,  D.C. 

Scenes  on  the  Panama  Canal 

In  the  upper  picture,  in  order  to  get  an  idea  of  the  depth  of  the  cut,  com- 
pare the  size  of  the  railroad  engines  with  tlie  height  of  the  mountain  on 
each  side  of  the  cut. 

In  the  lower  picture,  is  the  transport  moving  rapidly  or  slowly?  How 
can  you  tell? 


TRANSPORTAT I  OX  1 1  3 

finally  bought  by  President  Roosevelt  from  the  KcpnMic  ..f 
Panama,  which  had  seceded  from  rojoinhia. 

The  first  thing  done  was  the  cleaning  uj)  of  the  Zone. 
One  of  the  officials  of  the  Zone  said  the  reason  the  I'nix  h 
had  failed  was  "  because  they  didn't  know  :i  nio>(|iiito  from  a 
bumblebee  "  —  meaning  that  the  Freneii  i\'u\  not  know  that 
the  mosquito  was  the  deadly  carrier  of  disease.  After  the 
Canal  Zone  was  cleaned  up  the  actual  digging  of  the  canal  was 
begun  and  it  was  finished  in  1915.  An  easy  route  to  Europe 
and  the  eastern  ports  of  the  United  States  is  now  given  to 
commerce  from  the  western  coast,  tran.sportation  to  South 
America  is  cheapened,  and  our  fleets  on  the  Pacific  are  put 
in  closer  touch  with  those  on  the  .Vtlaiitic. 

Modem  transportation.  —  Following  the  raihda<l  era  came 
the  age  of  electricity  and  gasoline.  If  you  live  in  a  large 
city  you  are  familiar  with  the  electric  railroad  that  roars 
above  you,  wuth  the  electric  cars  that  flash  by  you  in  the 
street,  and  with  the  subway  that  rumbles  beneath  you. 
Petrol  or  gasoline  has  made  possil)le  the  .small,  powerful 
engine  such  as  we  find  in  the  automobile  and  the  airi)hiiie. 
Automobiles  and  auto  trucks  are  taking  the  place  of  horses. 
The  air])lane  will  undoubtedly  become  still  more  useful,  since 
war  has  demonstrated  some  of  its  uses  in  times  of  peace. 
In  many. places  electric  engines  are  taking  the  j)lace  of  steam 
engines  in  the  hauling  of  trains.  The  interurban  lines  of 
trolleys  are  bringing  all  parts  of  the  l;i!id  into  closer  touch. 
The  farmer  is  able  more  readily  to  shij)  his  goods,  ^vts  better 
prices  for  them,  and  so  becomes  more  prosjxTous. 

Government  and  transportation.  —  Prom  what  you  have 
read  about  transportation  it  must  be  very  clear  to  you  that 
from  the  beginning  of  our  history,  government  has  been  of 
great  assistance  in  the  carrying  of  goods  from  one  place  to 


114 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


another.  The  carrying  of  goods  to  and  fro  and  the  trans- 
portation of  the  people  as  they  go  about  their  business  are 
large  factors  in  our  industrial  life.  The  problem  of  transporta- 
tion touches  every  one.  When  we  realize  that  ninety-five  per 
cent  of  all  the  raw  materials  raised  on  the  farms  and  taken 
from  the  mines,  and  at  least  an  equal  proportion  of  the 
finished  product  of  the  manufacturer  has  to  be  carried  over 


mm 

s^^tl 

mjt^-'U:.^ 

V         1 

^^ 

^^^ 

Courtesy  of  Rulherford  Hayner. 
Inter-City  Transportation 

This  bus  carries  passengers  between  two  neighboring  cities,  making 
stops  at  the  small  communities  on  the  way.  W'hat  advantages  are  there 
in  such  a  method  of  transportation? 

a  road  of  some  kind  before  it  is  used,  the  great  importance 
of  roads  is  evident.  ^Ye  can  see  that  all  forms  of  govern- 
ment, local,  state,  and  national,  must  look  after  transporta- 
tion. It  may  be  well  at  this  point  to  note  what  part  each 
of  these  three  forms  of  government  takes  in  this  work. 

Local  government  and  transportation.  —  The  local  govern- 
ment of  each  unit,  —  village,  town,  or  county,  —  looks  after 
the  building  of  the  roads  in  its  vicinity.    This  is  done  in  various 


TRANSPOinwriON  115 

ways  in  (liirertMit  states.  In  some  states  it  is  the  eiistoin 
for  every  man  in  the  connniMiity  to  he  taxed  lor  thi>  piirposj-. 
He  may  "  work  ont  "  his  tax  l)y  ^ivinj,'  a  ecrlain  nuniher 
of  hours  of  actual  work  on  the  roads  in  his  neiuhhorhood,  or 
he  may  pay  the  money  into  the  h)eal  treasury  and  it  will  he 
spent  for  the  purpose.  The  result  of  such  haphazard  work 
is  poor  roads.  The  average  man  knows  nothinf;  about  the 
scientific  buildin<i;  of  a  road,  and  it  is  not  lont,^  before  there 
are  ruts  and  holes  and  a  bad  pit'ce  of  road,  which  makes 
transportation  difficult . 

In  some  states,  Xew  \  ork  and  Massachusetts,  for  instance, 
the  state  builds  the  roads,  at  least  the  main  roads.  The 
town,  county,  and  state  pay  for  tlu-ir  maintenance  l)y  a  tax 
usually  levied  in  the  proportion  of  10,80,  and  (iO.  In  New- 
York  the  local  superintendent  of  roads  hires  men  who  ])atrol 
them,  mend  them  when  necessary,  take  care  of  th<'  smaller 
bridges,  and  in  general  keep  the  thoroughfares  in  as  good 
condition  as  possible.  Local  units,  usually  the  comity, 
build  the  bridges  that  are  necessary,  though  the  cost  is  some- 
times shared  by  a  city  which  may  be  part  of  one  of  the 
counties.  As  a  result  of  such  systematic  road  building 
in  prosperous  sections  of  the  country,  when  you  go  out  in 
your  automobile  a  long  stretch  of  good  roads  is  at  your 
service.  If  you  live  on  a  farm  n(>ar  a  \  illage  or  city,  the 
problem  of  getting  heavy  loads  to  market  is  s(»lved.  The 
rural  mail  carrier  comes  regularly,  and  though  you  live  many 
miles  from  town,  the  distance  has  been  shortened  by  the 
fact  that  you  have  good  roads  near  you. 

The  state  and  transportation.  —  All  methods  of  transporta- 
tion in  the  state  are  controlled  to  a  greater  or  lesser  degree 
by  the  state.  The  roads  are  laid  out  by  the  state  engineer 
and  their  building  is  under  his  care.     Tin-  state  passes  laws 


116 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


for  the  safety  of  the  road,  regulates  the  speed  of  automobiles 
(sometimes  this  is  done  by  the  local  authorities) ,  specifies  the 
manner  of  lighting  cars  and  other  vehicles  at  night,  and  in 
short  looks  out  for  the  safety  of  the  citizens.  The  state 
grants  franchises  to  railroads  and  other  transportation  com- 


A  Bridge  of  Modern  Construction 
Decide  from  the  picture  in  which  direction  the  river  is  flowing. 

panics  to  do  business  and  keeps  control  of  them  in  many 
states  through  a  Public  Service  Commission  (see  Chapter 
XIX).  Such  a  commission  requires  the  railroads  to  report 
to  it  all  accidents  on  their  lines,  it  grants  permission  to 
"jitneys"  and  auto-bus  lines  to  do  business,  and  it  estab- 
lishes freight  and  passenger  rates  within  the  state. 
The   rapidly    increasing   number   of   automobiles   forced 


TRANSPORTATION 


117 


tlie  states  to  establisli  some  sort  ol"  control  of  tJK'm.  I'or 
this  reason  the  state  requires  that  their  owners  register  thmi 
with  one  of  the  state  departments.  It  :ils<»  licenses  the 
chaulVeurs.  This  is  done  for  a  donhlc  pnrijosc,  to  secure 
the  income  that  such  licenses  bring  the  state,  ;ind  to  hold 
accountable  those  who  may  be  responsil)le  for  accidents. 
Where  the  state  has  a  state  constabulary  the  members 
watch  the  roads  and  attempt  to  prevent  the  "  joy  ridiii-,'  " 
which  is  the  cause  of  so  many  accidents. 


/  Httvner 


A  Safe  Railuoad  Cuossing 


Note  where  the   road   originally  came  down    to   cross  the   tracks  nnd  the 
dangerous  curve  heN-oiui  the  bridge. 

The  states  have  charge  of  the  canals  within  their  bduiul- 
aries,  except  that  the  national  go\-ernment  ma\'  take 
charge  of  them  in  time  of  war  as  it  did  of  the  barge  canal  in 
New  York.  There  is  usually  a  state  engineer  whose  busi- 
ness it  is  to  see  that  the.se  waterways  are  ke|)t  in  good  re- 
pair and  to  make  plans  for  their  construction  and  operation 
when  necessary. 

The  national  government  and  transportation.  No 
part  of  our   national    life  is    looked    after    more    carefully 


118  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

by  the  national  government  than  transportation.  The 
Department  of  Agriculture  (see  Chapter  XXI)  maintains  a 
Bureau  of  Public  Roads  for  the  purpose  of  giving  information 
concerning  the  public  roads  of  the  states  and  the  laws  which 
govern  them,  and  is  ready  to  give  expert  advice  to  any  section 
of  the  country  concerning  building  and  maintenance  of  roads. 
The  work  of  the  post-office  in  its  rural  delivery  of  mail 
will  be  considered  in  another  chapter.     (See  Chapter  VIII.) 

The  national  government  has  established  a  commission 
known  as  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  which 
supervises  the  commerce  between  the  states.  "  This  was 
intended  to  relieve  the  public  of  some  of  the  evils  that  had 
grown  up  in  connection  with  the  great  railroad  systems." 
This  body  of  men  is  five  in  number  and  is  appointed  by  the 
President.  It  sees  that  the  rates  charged  by  the  railroads  are 
reasonable  and  that  there  is  no  unfair  discrimination  be- 
tween persons,  corporations,  and  localities,  and  all  connecting 
lines.  Some  of  the  great  evils  connected  with  transporta- 
tion have  been  lessened  by  this  commission. 

As  previously  stated  the  government  controls  the  Panama 
Canal.  In  addition  to  building  it,  the  government  has 
appointed  the  proper  officials  for  the  control  of  the  Canal 
Zone  and  for  the  collection  of  tolls  from  the  ships  which 
pass  through  the  canal.  It  has  fortified  the  canal,  and  the 
soldiers  stationed  there  are  under  the  control  of  the  War 
Department  (see  Chapter  XXI),  as  are  the  other  soldiers  of 
the  nation.  It  may  also  take  charge  of  the  elections  of 
the  Republic  of  Panama,  as  was  done  in  1918,  so  that  an 
honest  election  may  be  had  and  there  may  be  no  danger 
to  the  canal.  The  government  also  controls  the  Sault  Ste. 
Marie  Canal,  which  connects  the  Great  Lakes.  So  great 
is  the    amount    of    goods  transported   through  this  canal 


TRANSPORTATION  HO 

that  tlio  annuiil  tolls  air  <,nTat(T  than   thnso  of  tho  Suez 
Canal. 

The  national  waterways,  the  inland  lakes,  and  llic  ocean 
within  the  three-niil(>  limit  are  all  nnder  the  control  of  the 
national  government.  Some  states  ha\e  departments  which 
share  this  control.  Under  the  direction  of  the  Department 
of  Commerce  (see  Chapter  XXI),  the  surveys  of  the  coast 
are  made,  rocks  and  shoals  are  charted,  and  lighthouses 
are  placed,  in  order  that  travel  may  be  as  safe  as  possible. 

Perhai)s  yon  live  near  the  ocean  or  ah  inland  lake  where 
the  lighthouses  flash  out  their  warning  signals.  The  gov- 
ernment maintains  a  special  ser\-ice  for  the  care  of  these 
signal  stations.  Life-saving  stations  are  also  maintained 
along  the  coasts. 

One  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  bureaus  of  the  government 
serves  to  protect  i)eris]ial)le  goods  in  transit  from  one  part 
of  the  country  to  the  other.  This  is  tlie  Weather  Bureau. 
Its  work  is  to  send  out  warnings  of  dangerous  storms  or  of 
sudden  changes  in  temperature  which  would  endanger  ship- 
ments either  by  boat  or  by  railroad.  Warnings  are  sent  to 
shipping  when  it  is  not  safe  to  i)nt  to  sea,  and  those  who 
live  near  rivers  are  warned  when  there  is  danger  of  floods. 

Our  share  in  transportation.  — Those  of  us  who  li\i'  in 
cities  have  very  definite  duties,  as  good  citizens,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  work  of  transportation.  This  is  to  make  our- 
selves responsible  for  the  city  streets  and  for  our  actions  in 
them.  We  should  take  care  in  playing  in  the  streets.  }\v- 
member  that  they  are  first  for  transportation  ami  then  t(t 
play  in  if  there  is  any  room.  No  matter  how  careful  a  dri\er 
is  he  cannot  avoid  accidents  if  boys  and  girls  are  careless  in 
running  in  front  of  the  vehicles.  In  this  country  we  arrest 
the  driver  if  he  hurts  anv  one.     In  France  the  one  wlm  i^ 


120 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


Courtesy  of  InslUulc  of  America 

'  No  matter  how  careful   a    driver   may   be,   he  cannot   avoid  accidents  if 
boys  and  girls  are  careless  in  running  in  front  of  vehicles." 


TRAXspoinwrioM  121 

arrested  is  the  one  who  sufVers  the  aeeident.  It  is  taken 
as  a  matter  of  course  that  tlie  (h'iver  has  the  first  ri<,'lit  in  the 
street  and  tha.t  those  who  walk  in  the  street  shoiihl  loctk  ;irid 
see  where  they  are  Kt>iiifi;.  It  might  l)e  a  good  thing  if  there 
were  such  a  law  in  this  country,  for  in  a  great  majority  of 
accidents  in  the  streets  the  one  hurt  is  the  one  to  bhime  and 
the  aeeident  has  been  caused  by  liis  carelessness. 

Again,  the  same  care  should  be  taken  in  the  country  and  on 
country  roads  and  in  crossing  the  railroad  tracks.  "  Stop, 
Look,  and  Listen  "  is  a  good  motto  for  those  who  arc  about 
to  cross  a  railroad  track.  Remember  that  the  train  has  the 
right  of  way  and  that  it  cannot  stop  as  quickly  as  you  can. 

Study  carefully  what  good  roads  mean  to  a  community, 
and  when  you  come  to  voting  age  you  will  understand  more 
clearly  what  it  means  to  help  in  the  fight  for  good  roads, 
clean  streets,  and  "  Safety  First." 


Questions  for  Invkstigation 

1.  What  Indian  trails  were  near  your  community?     Were  tliere  any 
|)')rta,2;es?     Name  some  towns  which  sj^rang  from  portapes. 

2.  Wliat  were  the  reasons  of  the  national  f^overnuient  for  taking  over 
the  railroads  during  the  war  against  Germany? 

3.  What  does  your  community  do  to  aid  transportation? 

4.  Why  are  canals  huilt,  when  railroads 'transport  goods  so  much 
iiu)re  quickly? 

5.  What  may  a  conununity  demand  from  a  street  car  system  ? 

6.  Who  has  control  over  the  buikling  and  rei)air  of  road-  in  \nur 
community?     How  are  such  expenses  met? 

7.  Wliat  laws  has  the  state  or  the  community  or  both  passed  to 
make  transportation  safe  for  the  person  in  the  street  or  on  the  road? 

8.  Does  your  state  recpiire  an  automobile  license?     H«)W  is  it  ob- 
tained?    Why  do  you  have  to  have  one? 

9.  Find  out  what  you  can  about  the  lo.sses  of  goods  because  of  poor 
facilities  for  transportation. 


122  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

10.  What  department  of  the  national  government  has  charge  of 
transportation  ?  Make  a  summary  of  the  duties  of  the  official  in  charge 
of  this  department. 

11.  Why  are  good  roads  a  benefit  to  the  farmer?  Do  you  think  it  a 
good  policy  for  the  state  to  build  roads  to  the  more  remote  parts  of 
the  state?     Why? 

12.  Make  a  list  of  the  different  means  of  transportation  used  in 
your  locality. 

13.  Make  a  report  to  the  class  on  the  methods  of  securing  safety  to 
people  and  goods  on  the  railroads. 

14.  Make  a  report  to  the  class  on  the  Panama  Canal,  touching  on 
(a)  its  locks,  (b)  how  the  Canal  Zone  is  governed,  (c)  rules  for  safety 
of  travel  through  the  canal,  (d)  how  the  Zone  was  cleaned  up. 

1.5.    Make  a  report  to  the  class  on  the  Lincoln  Highway. 

16.  Make  a  list  of  the  different  kinds  of  pavement  in  your  com- 
munity. Which  gives  the  best  service  to  transportation?  Which 
gives  the  best  service  in  proportion  to  its  cost  ? 

17.  What  are  the  duties  of  a  "traffic  manager"  of  a  corporation  or  a 
community  ?  Do  you  think  this  would  be  a  good  profession  to  follow  ? 
Why? 


CHAPTER  VTTI 
COMMUNICATION 

One  day  as  the  little  boy  and  girl  of  whom  we  have  read 
were  playing  about  the  river  bank  (see  Chapter  I),  tliey  saw, 
away  in  the  distance,  the  smoke  from  a  fire  rising  from  the 
top  of  the  distant  hills.  It  rose  straight  up  for  a  while,  then 
stopped  and  again  ascended,  then  stopped  again,  and  then  a 
greater  volume  rose  up  above  the  tree-tops.  "  What  makes 
the  smoke  act  so  funny?"  asked  the  little  girl  of  her  brother. 
"  Indians  are  signaling,"  answered  the  boy. 

Another  day  as  they  had  w-andered  along  the  trail  leading 
toward  the  east  from  their  home,  the  boy  noticed  some 
sticks  placed  in  a  peculiar  fashion  alongside  the  trail.  A 
l)it  farther  on  he  noticed  a  little  heap  of  stones  and  still 
farther,  some  notches  on  a  tree.  That  night  as  the  family 
was  sitting  about  the  fireplace,  the  boy  asked  his  father 
the  meaning  of  these  things  he  had  seen.  He  was  told  that 
they  were  placed  there  by  the  Indians  and  were  their  way  of 
showing  direction  and  also  who  had  passed  that  way.  The 
father  told  them  of  the  Indian  picture  writing  on  bark  or 
skins,  illustrating  it  by  the  following  story. 

A  white  man  in  the  Indian  country  saw  an  Indian  riding  a 
horse  which  he  recognized  as  his  own.  A  (piarrel  arose  and 
the  Indian  said,  "  Friend,  after  a  while  I  will  call  at  your 
house,  when  we  shall  talk  of  the  matter."  Wlu-n  he  came 
the  two  again  quarreled.     The   white  man   again   renewed 

123 


124  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

his  demand  for  the  horse.  The  Indian  immediately  took  a 
coal  from  the  fireplace  and  made  two  pictures  on  the  door 
of  the  house,  the  one  representing  the  white  man  taking  the 
horse,  and  the  other,  himself,  in  the  act  of  scalping  him  ;  then 
he  coolly  asked  the  trembling  claimant,  "  Can  you  read  the 
Indian  writing?"  The  white  man  could,  and  the  Indian 
rode  away  on  the  horse. 

One  day  the  father  ferried  over  the  river  a  stranger  who 
said,  "  I  have  a  letter  here  for  your  boy.  It  is  from  a  boy 
with  whom  he  used  to  play  when  you  were  in  Boston.  I  left 
Boston  some  months  ago,  but  I  presume  it  will  be  welcome 
just  the  same."  Indeed  it  was.  This  was  the  first  letter 
he  had  exer  received,  and  one  of  the  ^•ery  few  e\'er  re- 
ceived by  the  family.  Few  older  people  in  those  days  re- 
ceived any  communications  from  the  outside  world,  to  say 
nothing  of  children  receiving  such  a  message,  so  this  was  a 
red-letter  day  in  the  pioneer  family.  After  it  had  been  read 
and  re-read  it  was  put  away  as  one  of  the  choice  treasures 
of  the  family. 

Communication  in  colonial  times.  —  In  colonial  times 
whatever  mail  there  was,  was  carried  by  private  persons, 
sometimes,  as  in  the  case  of  the  traveler,  as  a  favor,  but 
more  often  as  a  matter  of  business.  There  was  no  organized 
effort  by  the  government  to  look  after  the  carrying  of  letters 
and  packages,  but  this  was  done  by  private  individuals. 
Such  persons  charged  from  eight  to  twenty-five  cents  for 
carrying  mail,  —  the  price  depending  on  the  length  of  the 
journey  and  the  size  of  the  package.  The  cost  was  paid  by 
the  one  who  received  it.  ]\Iails  were  irregular  and  infre- 
quent. They  were  carried  by  post-riders,  who  followed  the 
roads  as  far  as  they  extended  and  then  the  narrow  Indian 
trails  through  the  woods.     They  left  the  city  when  they 


COMMUNICATION  125 

had  collected  enough  inuil  to  iii;ikr  ;i  full  ha.u.  Not  until 
1753  was  an  official  appointed  l)\  the  English  Parliament  to 
have  charji;e  of  the  mails  in  the  colonies.  This  first  I'ost- 
master-Cieneral  was  Benjamin  Franklin,  who  served  ahont 
twenty  years.  The  amount  of  mail  carried  in  a  year 
throughout  the  colonies  would  not  be  nearly  as  much  as 
comes  into  Xew  York  City  in  one  day  at  the  present  time. 

Newspapers  were  few  and  were  not  carried  in  the  mails, 
but  by  private  arrangement.  When  the  Re\dlutionar\ War 
began  there  were  in  all  thirty-se\en  ne\vsj)apers  printed  in 
the  colonies,  and  all  their  subscribers  together  did  not  num- 
ber more  than  five  thousand. 

Beginnings  of  modern  communication.  —  As  time  went  on 
and  good  roads  were  built,  as  the  steamboat  came  into  use, 
and  as  the  railroads  began  to  link  the  country  together, 
methods  of  communication  were  impro\ed.  It  was  no  longer 
such  a  wonderful  thing  to  receive  a  letter  or  a  newspai)er. 
About  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  (1S4.'))  jxistage 
stamps  began  to  be  used,  and  a  littl(>  later  the  rate  of  letter 
postage  was  set  at  three  cents  an  ounce.  This  has  changed 
from  three  to  two  cents,  back  again  to  three,  and  again 
dropped  to  two,  as  the  needs  of  the  Post-Office  l)ej)artment 
have  varied. 

The  Post-Office  Department.  —  The  Post-Office  Dej)art- 
ment  has  become  one  t)f  the  largest  in  our  government.  The 
Postmaster-General  is  appointed  by  the  President  and  is  a 
member  of  his  cabinet.  He  has  control  of  all  matter  that  is 
sent  through  the  mails,  whether  letters,  paj^ers.  or  jxickages. 
Such  absolute  control  has  he  that  he  may  bar  certain  matter 
from  going  by  post.  Sometimes  newspapers  are  forbidden 
to  use  the  mail  because  of  improper  matter  printed  in  them. 
The   Postmaster-General  appoints  many   postmasters,  has 


126 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


charge  of  the  postmen, 
and  attends  to  the  rural 
free  delivery,  the  parcel 
post,  the  sending  of 
money  orders,  and  the 
postal  savings  banks. 

The  rural  free  delivery 
and  the  parcel  post  have 
been  of  great  benefit  to 
the  agricultural  sections 
of  the  country.  They 
have  brought  the  farmer 
in  closer  touch  with  af- 
fairs of  the  government, 
made  possible  the  ship- 
ping of  farm  products 
direct  to  the  consumer, 
and  helped  in  the  fight 
for  good  roads.  To-day 
the  farmer  living  in  a 
remote  district  may  get 
his  daily  paper  and  his 
mail  as  does  the  city 
dweller,  or  may  order  his 
goods  from  the  city  store 
and  have  them  sent  the 
same  day  by  parcel  post. 


Courtesy  of  H.  p.  CTieney      CoUntrV     Hfc      haS      bcCn 


A  Government  Official 


made  more  attractive 
and    farm    values    have 


What  are    his   duties?     What   service 
does  he  render   to  you?     What   are   the     increased, 
duties  of  that  department  of  government  . 

which  he xepresents?  i  he  postal   savings 


COMMUNICATION  127 

banks  have  made  it  possible  to  put  into  circulation  lar^e 
sums  of  money  formerly  hoarded.  Sometimes  peoj)le  were 
afraid  of  the  banks,  sometimes  they  had  no  bankinjf  faeiHties 
near  at  hand.  But  every  town  has  a  post  office,  and  con- 
fidence in  a  <j;overnment  institution  is  in  the  minds  (»f  many 
mucli  greater  than  in  a  ])rivate  institution.  .\  small  rate  of 
interest  is  paid,  and  amounts  as  small  as  a  dollar  may  be 
deposited. 

x\mong  other  activities  of  this  department  of  government 
is  the  money  order  system,  by  which  money  may  be  sent 
from  one  place  to  another  or  abroad.  For  a  small  fee 
a  letter  or  parcel  may  be  delivered  immediately  on  its 
arrival  and  articles  may  be  insured  to  the  amount  of  fifty 
dollars ;    if  the  article  is  lost  the  government  settles  for  it. 

Curiosities  of  the  post  office.  —  Many  curious  things  go 
through  the  mails.  Sometimes  live  animals  are  sent  by 
parcel  post,  and  a  case  is  on  record  of  a  baby  being  shipped 
by  this  method.  Mr.  TTaskins,  in  his  book,  "  American  Gov- 
ernment," tells  of  the  following  curious  things  sent  by  post. 
Tn  one  box  was  a  rattlesnake,  accompanied  by  a  card  on 
which  was  written,  "  1  hope  this  i)uts  an  end  to  you."  In  one 
post  office  the  employees  were  driven  from  the  building  by  a 
swarm  of  bees  which  escaped  from  their  container.  In 
another,  the  building  was  just  as  rapidly  cleared  when  a 
package  of  skunk  skins  was  placed  on  the  radiator. 

The  most  curious  post  office  is  on  tlie  Galapagos  Islands. 
It  is  a  barrel  in  which  letters  are  placed.  As  all  mariners 
know  of  this  post  office,  they  are  on  the  lookout  for  it  when 
near  the  islands  and  take  out  the  mail  it  contains  and  forward 
it  to  their  nearest  post. 

The  telegraph.  —  About  the  same  time  that  the  post- 
age stamp  came  into  use,  an  invention  was  made  which 


128  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

revolutionized  communication.  This  was  the  telegraph.  We 
should  not  know  what  to  do  without  it  to-day,  and  it  is  hard 
to  realize  that  such  a  convenience  has  not  always  been  in  use. 
You  learned  when  you  studied  history  that  the  telegraph 
was  the  invention  of  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  who  adapted  an 
earlier  machine  of  Joseph  Henry.  He  asked  Congress  for 
an  appropriation  of  thirty  thousand  dollars  to  establish  an 
experimental  line  from  Baltimore  to  Washington.  There 
was  much  opposition  among  the  law  makers  to  granting 
it.  Indeed,  to  many  of  them  the  invention  was  a  joke,  and 
one  Congressman  even  mo\'ed  that  the  appropriation  should 
be  used  to  construct  a  railway  to  the  moon,  as  he  thought 
this  would  be  as  sensible  as  the  telegraph.  Another  member 
of  Congress  actually  lost  his  next  election  because  he  had 
voted  for  the  appropriation.  But  it  was  made,  and  the 
telegraph  was  so  successful  that  it  was  not  long  before  lines 
were  crossing  the  country  east  of  the  ]\Iississippi  in  all 
directions. 

West  of  the  Mississippi  telegraph  lines  developed  much 
more  slowly  than  in  the  East.  For  some  years  preceding  the 
war  between  the  states,  communication  through  the  West 
was  carried  on  by  the  pony  express  riders,  those  picturesque 
characters  who  raced  across  the  plains  on  their  relays  of 
horses,  braving  the  dangers  from  Indians,  outlaws,  storms, 
raging  streams,  and  accidents.  In  1861,  with  the  help  of 
an  appropriation  from  Congress,  which  now  saw  the  value 
of  the  telegraph,  the  first  line  across  the  mountains  to  the 
coast  was  finished.  Not  many  years  afterward  all  parts  of 
the  West  were  in  communication  with  one  another. 

The  cable.  —  Communication  with  Europe  was  slow  and 
unsatisfactory  until  the  end  of  the  Civil  War.  In  1S6G, 
Cyrus  W.  Field  laid  the  first  successful  cable  between  this 


COMMUNICATION 


129 


130  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

country  and  England.  He  encountered  many  difficulties, 
but  finally  overcame  them  all.  People  thought  he  was  as 
crazy  and  foolish  as  the  Congressmen  who  were  asked  to 
appropriate  money  for  the  telegraph  had  considered  Morse. 
To-day  cables  span  the  globe  and  messages  may  be  sent 
around  the  world. 

The  telephone.  —  In  1876  there  was  added  the  third  of  our 
great  means  of  communication  with  one  another,  the  tele- 
phone. Peculiarly  enough,  this  was  the  invention  of  two 
men  working  separately,  Elisha  Gray  of  Chicago  and  Alex- 
ander Bell  of  Boston,  both  of  whom  applied  for  a  patent  at 
almost  the  same  hour  of  the  same  day. 

By  the  invention  of  the  telegraph  and  the  telephone, 
homes,  villages,  and  cities,  states  and  nations  are  placed  in 
closer  communication  with  one  another  than  were  the  little 
boy  and  girl  of  our  first  chapter  with  their  nearest  neighbor. 
By  the  cable  the  news  of  foreign  events  reaches  us  shortly 
after  they  occur;  by  the  telephone  we  may  talk  with  our 
friends  though  far  separated,  call  the  doctor  when  we  are 
ill,  or  summon  the  police  or  the  firemen  if  our  home  is  in 
danger.  We  are  so  accustomed  to  the  use  of  these  con- 
veniences that  they  have  come  to  be  necessities. 

Wireless.  —  During  a  very  recent  period  a  new  kind  of 
telegraph  and  telephone  has  come  into  use,  which  we  know 
as  the  "  wireless."  Through  a  series  of  inventions  by  dif- 
ferent men,  messages  are  no  longer  carried  from  place  to 
place  by  wires,  but  through  the  air.  This  is  of  great  im- 
portance to  ships,  so  much  so  that  the  national  government 
has  passed  laws  which  compel  all  ships  to  install  a  wireless 
outfit  so  that  if  they  are  in  danger  they  may  summon  help. 

Communication  in  war.  —  The  war  with  Germany  brought 
out  manv  new  uses  for  wireless  and  many  unique  methods 


COMMUXICATIOX 


,  ^(Kw..  _^ 


>.,^^.., 


V,     ■.,.-^N.   •*^tff» 


'■■''-^ 


132  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

of  communication.  Communication  was  often  established 
between  those  imder  fire  and  the  rear  by  means  of  dogs  and 
carrier  pigeons.  These  animals  often  got  through  when  wire- 
less and  other  methods  of  communication  failed  ;  indeed  so 
brave  were  some  of  the  dogs  and  pigeons  that  they  received 
the  war  cross.     Communication  under  fire  was  kept  up  by 


( 'iiurltsy  (If  llic  Navy  Department 

Radio  Students,  Naval  Training  Station,  Great  Lakes,  Illinois 

telephones,  whose  wires  were  laid  under  great  difficulties  and 
danger.  The  airplane  wirelessed  the  positions  of  the  German 
machine  guns  and  heavy  artillery  to  our  artillery,  our  com- 
manders learned  of  the  positions  of  their  troops,  and  cities 
were  warned  of  enemy  air  raids.  By  the  use  of  the 
wireless  telephone,  perfected  during  the  war  and  closely 
guarded  by  the  Allies,  airplanes  thousands  of  feet  in  the 
air  received  their  commands  from  their  officers  stationed 


COMMUNICATION 


133 


on  the  fi;roun(l,  or  miule  reports  of  their  ol).serv;itioii>  tioiii 
their  lofty  stations. 

The  new  telephone.  —  Notlon<!;siiieetiie»SVvVN///?rJ///Yr/a/// 
])iiblislied  ;ui  article  on  the  ini])ro\enients  in  the  wirele.ss  tele- 


iKS-'-o^^-TL^fv^; 


UirUed  Slates  oiruuil  I'hoiugraph 
Sending  CoMMrNiCATioNs 

The  soldiers  are  using  gas  equipment  while  receiving  instructions  fnmi  an 
observer  some  distance  away. 

phoneand  on  the  improvements  which  have  made  i)ossiltK-  the 
"loud-speaking  telei)hone."  The  magazine  said.  "  1  )uring  tiie 
Victory  Loan  ceremonies,  the  loud-speaking  telephone  has 
made  it  possible  for  a  speaker  to  address  a  crowd  of  tens  of 
thousands  of  persons  extending  for  more  than  a  quarter  of  a 
mile  from  the  speaker's  platform,  despite  all  noises.     Again 


134  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

public  speeches  have  been  transmitted  by  means  of  the  wire- 
less telephone  through  many  miles  of  space  to  an  expectant 
audience.  Finally  it  is  possible  for  any  one  to  deliver  a 
speech  from  his  drawing-room  in  New  York  to  50,000  persons 
in  Chicago."  During  the  Victory  Loan,  "  for  the  purpose 
of  receiving  speeches  from  air  ships  and  airplanes.  Victory 
Way  (a  part  of  Park  Avenue,  New  York)  was  spanned  by 
a  huge  aerial."  By  means  of  this  and  the  loud-speaking 
telephones  it  was  possible  for  the  people  in  the  street  to 
hear  messages  from  far  aloft  in  the  heavens. 

Censorship.  —  During  the  war  against  Germany  you  may 
have  received  a  letter  from  a  brother  or  your  father  in  France. 
On  the  envelope  you  may  have  noticed  the  words  stamped 
in  one  corner  and  signed  by  a  name  or  initials,  "  Passed  by 
the  censor."  That  meant  that  some  one  in  authority  had 
read  the  letter  before  it  came  to  you  and  perhaps  had  cut 
out  parts  of  it  to  make  sure  that  nothing  had  been  written 
which  might  give  information  to  the  enemy,  even  though 
this  was  not  intended.  Here  we  find  the  government  keeping 
such  close  watch  of  our  affairs  that  even  our  private 
mail  is  opened  and  read.  If  you  read  the  newspapers  you 
often  saw  the  words  "  Somewhere  in  France,"  "  Deleted 
(cut  out)  by  the  Censor,"  "  A  Port  in  America."  All  these 
phrases  showed  that  the  censor  was  at  work  here  also.  Al- 
though the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  says,  "  Con- 
gress shall  make  no  law  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech  or 
of  the  press,"  yet  in  times  of  great  danger  it  may  do  both. 
During  the  war  some  seditious  and  disloyal  papers  were 
stopped  from  further  publication  and  their  issues  con- 
fiscated. The  Constitution  gives  us  freedom  of  communica- 
tion, but  it  does  not  mean  that  there  can  be  so  much  freedom 
that  harm  may  come  from  it. 


COMMUNICATION 


i:i; 


Such  extreme  cases  of  fj;(>verniiuMit  (((iitrol  of  coiiuiiuiiica- 
tion  are  not  common.  I'sually  people  niuy  write  and  >peak 
what  they  choose.  They  are  Hai)le  under  the  hiw,  liowever, 
if  they  pubUsh  things  about  peoi)le  that  are  not  true.  This 
appHes  to  corporations  as  well  as  to  individuals. 

Government  and  communication.  -  Many  new  pntblems 
have  arisen  for  government  to  solve  since  the  means  of  eom- 


Courlisu  of  Curtisi  Airplane  Co. 

Airplanes  in  Flight 

Photographed   from  another  maehine.     Mail  was  recently  carried  by  air- 
plane from  Alaska  to  the  Atlantic  Coa.st. 

munication  have  become  so  common.  During  the  (Jreat 
War  the  Postmaster-Cieneral  iook  complete  control  of  all 
the  telegraph,  telephone,  and  cable  lines.  This  was  in  order 
to  help  win  the  war  by  making  the  censorship  more  sure. 
After  the  war  closed  the  lines  were  given  back  to  their 
original  owners. 

Many  states,  either   through   a    commission    or  a   state 
official,  exercise  control   over   the  lines  of  conununication 


136  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

within  their  borders.  For  example,  New  York  State  has 
the  Public  Service  Commission  which,  among  its  other 
duties,  has  the  power  to  regulate  the  telegraph  and  telephone 
lines  within  the  borders  of  the  state.  It  regulates  rates 
and  asks  for  reports  of  the  financial  condition  of  the  com- 
panies that  do  business  in  the  state. 

Your  local  community  has  some  control  of  these  com- 
panies also.  The  law-making  body  must  first  grant  them 
permission  to  conduct  their  business  (see  Chapter  XVI). 
The  poles  upon  which  the  wires  are  strung  are  unsightly,  and 
some  communities  make  the  corporations  put  the  wires  under- 
ground. If  the  poles  are  erected  permission  must  sometimes 
be  secured  from  the  property  owner.  If  the  employees  of  the 
company  cut  or  disfigure  trees  while  stringing  the  wires,  the 
company  may  be  held  liable  for  the  damage  done. 

The  good  citizen  and  communication.  —  As  a  good  citizen 
you  will  see  to  it  that  the  letters  and  packages  you  send  are 
carefully  addressed  so  that  they  will  not  go  to  the  "  Dead 
Letter "  department  of  the  post  office.  Thousands  and 
thousands  of  letters  were  never  received  by  our  brave  soldiers 
in  France,  to  whom  a  w^ord  from  home  meant  a  great  deal, 
because  the  senders  were  careless  about  writing  the  address 
plainly. 

When  you  use  the  telephone,  remember  the  thousands  of 
people  who  use  it  every  day  and  think  what  a  demand  is 
made  upon  the  patience  of  those  in  the  telephone  office  who 
handle  the  calls. 

Read  the  newspapers  every  day,  so  that  you  may  know 
what  is  going  on  in  the  world  about  you.  Let  them  help  you 
to  form  your  opinions  about  the  problems  which  government 
has  to  solve,  for  it  is  from  this  source  that  we  get  some  of  our 
best  ideas.    Po  not  confine  yourself  to  one  newspaper  and  its 


COMMUNTCATION  1:^7 

opinions,  hut  read  sovorul,  juid  tlu-n  forni  yom-  own  cnncln- 
sions.  Read  the  papers  that  are  noted  for  heinj,'  trntlifiil 
and  that  present  a  fair  i)ictur('  of  I'vcnts  and  not  a  hia-cd 
one.  Suspend  ju(l<;nient  for  a  while  until  you  eau  form  a 
true  decision. 

Questions  for  Investigation 

1.  What  are  the  present  limits  of  "wireless  "? 

2.  What  are  the  benefits  of  the  telephone  in  a  rural  ((niiiimiiity ? 
In  a  city  ? 

3.  By  what  different  means  did  the  governnu'iit  keep  in  toiidi  with 
its  armies  in  Europe? 

4.  Show  how  business  enterprises  (loju-nd  on  conHnuiiication. 

5.  What  is  meant  by  a  post  road?  Where  is  the  i)<)st  roail  nearest 
your  home? 

6.  How  was  the  use  of  "wireless"  restricted  during;  the  war  with 
Germany  ? 

7.  Make  a  report  to  the  class  of  some  of  the  peculiar  means  of  com- 
munication used  in  the  war  with  Germany.  Comi)are  these  with  the 
means  used  during  the  war  between  the  states. 

8.  What  are  some  of  the  things  that  you,  as  a  good  citizi-i),  may  do 
to  help  communication? 

9.  What  is  the  name  of  the  j)resent  Postmaster-Cuiicral?  Make  a 
summary  of  his  duties. 

10.  Write  a  composition  on  one  of  the  following  subjects:  "The 
Airplane  as  a  Means  of  Communication."  "The  Wireless  Tele- 
graph," "The  Wireless  Telephone." 

11.  Make  a  report  to  the  class  on  some  of  the  thing.s  you  have  learned 
from  your  postage-stamp  collection. 


CHAPTER  IX 
MIGRATION 

The  story  of  Pietro.  —  Pietro  was  playing  with  his  brothers 
and  sisters  about  their  home  in  a  Httle  village  in  Sicily. 
Suddenly  one  of  his  sisters  shouted,  "  Here  comes  Angelo," 
and  there  appeared  a  boy  of  thirteen  or  fourteen  years 
dressed  after  the  fashion  of  all  American  boys.  He  looked 
very  different  from  the  children  about  him.  His  clothing 
was  different,  he  had  a  different  air,  and  he  seemed  scornful 
of  the  town  and  its  inhabitants.  With  him  was  his  father, 
dressed,  too,  in  American  clothes,  and  carrying  with  him 
an  air  of  prosperity  possessed  by  no  one  else  in  the  village. 
After  they  had  passed  Pietro  remarked,  "  Look  at  them. 
They  are  rich.  They  have  just  come  from  America.  Angelo 
says  he  goes  to  school  and  earns  money  by  selling  papers. 
He  says  they  have  something  they  call  a  bath  tub  in  their 
house,  and  he  takes  a  bath  every  day.  Why  should  he  do 
that?  He  says  he  isn't  a  '  ginnie  '  like  us ;  he  is  an  American 
citizen  because  his  father  is.  I'm  going  to  be  an  American 
and  get  rich  and  wear  good  clothes  like  Angelo."  As  he 
talked  he  saw  his  father  coming  down  the  street  on  his  way 
home  from  work.  He  noticed  a  great  difference  between  his 
father  and  Angelo's.  Secretly  he  was  a  little  ashamed  when 
he  compared  the  two  men  as  they  stopped  to  chat  for  a  few 
moments. 

That  evening  as  Pietro  was  eating  his  supper  he  said 
to  his  father,  "  Why  don't  we  go  to  America  and  get  rich  ? 

138 


MIGRATION  1:^0 

Look  at  Angelo  unci  his  father."  "  He  still,  Pictro,"' 
growled  his  father,  "  do  not  talk  foolishly."  But  neverthe- 
less when  Pietro  had  gone  to  bed  and  was  snppoM-d  to  he 
asleep,  he  heard  his  father  and  mother  talking  about  Anieriea, 
that  wonderful  land  where  money  was  to  be  gained  so  easilv. 
So  it  was  every  night,  Pietro  fell  asleep  listening  to  the 
arguments  going  back  and  forth  in  the  other  room.  Some- 
times the  father  of  Angelo  would  come  in,  and  then  there 
would  be  no  sleep  for  listening  to  the  wonderful  .stories  of 
the  land  across  the  ocean.  He  heard  that  j)eoi)k'  earned  as 
much  there  in  a  week  as  his  father  did  in  a  month.  Tf  one 
were  saving  of  what  he  earned,  land  eould  be  bought,  ;is  much 
as  ten  acres;  or  if  one  were  very  rich,  why,  twenty  acres, 
and  for  a  small  sum,  too.  Such  talk  .seemed  to  Pietro's  father 
like  fairy  stories  until  one  night  Angelo's  father  ])ulled  from 
his  pocket  a  deed  to  land,  which  showed  that  he  owned  twenty 
acres  of  land.  "And  you  left  here  ])oor,  didn't  you?" 
"  Yes,  I  was  poorer  than  you  are  and  had  to  borrow  money  to 
pay  my  passage,  while  you  have  enough  to  pay  for  all  the 
family." 

So  it  went  on,  until  one  Sunday  as  the  family  was  coming 
from  mass,  Pietro's  father  said,  "  We  are  going  to  America. 
The  good  priest  has  said  the  stories  of  Angelo's  father  are 
true  and  not  lies  as  I  had  thought.  He  says  there  are  many 
chances  for  a  good  man  in  America."  Great  was  the  joy 
of  the  children,  but  Pietro  saw  the  tears  sIowIn-  roll  down 
his  mother's  cheeks.  He  could  not  un(](r>tand  why.  for 
he  was  not  old  enough  to  understand  what  it  meant 
for  older  people  to  give  up  home  and  country  and  go  into 
a  strange  land  to  try  their  fortunes  anew.  Preparations 
were  soon  made,  good-bys  were  said,  and  the  journey  was 
begun. 


140  COMMUNITY  CIVICS 

All  was  new  to  Pietro.  First  there  was  the  ride  on  the 
steam  cars  to  the  port  where  they  were  going  to  embark. 
Then  they  came  to  the  wonderful  boat,  huge  beyond  all 
Pietro's  dreams.  Though  the  steerage  would  not  seem  a 
beautiful  place  to  us,  but  quite  the  contrary,  yet  to  Pietro 
it  was  a  fine  place.  Here  were  several  hundred  others  who 
were  going  to  make  trial  of  the  new  land,  too,  and  of  course 
there  were  many  boys  and  girls  who  were  going  with  their 
parents.  They  could  not  all  speak  the  same  language,  but 
the  common  language  of  all  boys  and  girls  soon  made  them 
friends.  Such  exciting  times  as  they  had !  There  was 
something  new  almost  every  minute,  and  Pietro  began  to 
feel  that  he  wished  the  journey  would  last  forever.  The 
ocean  was  smooth  and  he  was  spared  sickness,  so  he  did  not 
miss  a  day  on  deck,  and  was  so  continually  asking  questions 
that  he  received  the  nickname  of  the  "  American  Question 
Mark." 

One  morning  Pietro  woke  up  to  find  that  the  boat  was  at 
anchor.  Hurriedly  dressing,  he  rushed  up  on  deck,  and  there 
was  the  wonderful  America,  more  wonderful  in  realization 
than  in  dreams.  He  had  never  imagined  such  a  sight.  Not 
far  away  he  saw  a  gigantic  statue  of  a  woman  holding  aloft 
in  her  hand  a  torch.  A  man  near  him,  in  answer  to  his 
questions,  said,  "  Little  American  Question  Mark,  that  is  a 
statue  of  Liberty  giving  light  to  the  whole  world.  It  means 
that  America  is  the  country  where  a  person  has  the  right  to 
do  as  he  pleases  so  long  as  he  does  not  harm  any  one  else. 
America,  too,  teaches  this  sort  of  liberty  to  all  the  world." 
Far  away,  Pietro  saw  the  tall  towers  of  New  York  looking 
like  some  towers  of  the  fairy  land  he  had  read  about  in  his 
own  country,  Italy.  He  could  not  believe  that  people 
reallv  lived  in  them. 


I 


MIGRATION 


141 


Before  Ions  tlie  sliip  liesJin  to  move  ajjain,  and  the  niaii 
who  had  tohl  him  about  the  Goihless  of  Liherty  said  that 
all  ships  which  come  to  New  York  are  ol)li<:ed  to  stop  at 
"  Quarantine,"  as  the  place  is  called.  This  is  done  that  men 
appointed  by  the  jrovernment  may  learn  whether  there  is 
among  the  passengers  any  dangerous  disease  whieh  might 


t  otirti.tu  I !  the  II  uf  Ocparlmcnt 
The  Statuio  of  Libkhty   iho.m   an  Aihi'i.ank 

be  brought  into  the  country  and  so  do  harm.  When  it  is 
found  out  that  there  is  none,  the  officials  permit  tlu-  ship 
to  go  on  its  way  into  the  harbor. 

Now  the  ship's  officers  began  to  get  ready  for  the  landing 
of  those  who  were  coming  to  the  country  for  the  first  time, 
and  it  was  not  long  i)efore  the  boat   st()pi)ed   in  fnmt  of  a 


142  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

large  building  with  four  high  towers.  Pietro  afterward 
learned  that  this  was  an  island  in  New  York  harbor,  Ellis 
Island,  where  all  immigrants  are  landed,  to  make  sure  that 
they  may  rightfully  enter  the  country.  Into  a  big  room 
fenced  off  into  pens,  something  like  the  cattle  pens  that 
Pietro  had  seen  in  his  own  country,  the  newcomers  went. 
Here  they  were  examined  carefully  to  see  if  they  had  any 
disease  which  might  render  them  incapable  of  self-support  or 
which  might  be  communicated  to  others.  They  were  ques- 
tioned as  to  many  things,  but  Pietro's  father  and  mother 
answered  all  the  questions  satisfactorily.  While  the  others 
were  being  questioned  Pietro,  you  may  be  sure,  was  looking 
about  him.  The  thing  which  impressed  him  most  was  the 
huge  flag  which  hung  at  one  end  of  the  room  where  they 
were  examined.  It  had  stripes  of  red  and  white  and  in 
one  corner  was  a  blue  field  dotted  with  stars.  "  That  must 
be  my  flag,  I  think,"  he  said  to  himself.  "  When  I  am  an 
American  I  must  reverence  the  American  flag." 

Wliile  the  man  was  so  carefully  examining  his  father  and 
mother,  his  brothers  and  sisters,  Pietro  began  to  be  afraid 
that  he  was  not  going  to  be  admitted  to  this  country, 
especially  as  he  saw  one  of  his  playmates  on  the  boat  crying 
bitterly.  When  he  asked  why,  he  found  that  the  boy  could 
not  land  because  he  was  ill  with  a  contagious  disease,  and 
he  and  his  parents  must  go  back  to  the  land  from  which 
they  came. 

After  Pietro  had  been  in  this  country  for  a  time  and  had 
been  in  school,  he  learned  that  certain  classes  of  people  are 
not  admitted  to  the  United  States  at  all  —  those  who  have 
no  money,  those  who  have  a  contagious  disease,  the  insane, 
criminals,  and  those  of  bad  character.  The  reason  for  this  is 
that  the  government  wants  people  who  come  here  to  become 


MIGRATION  143 

fjood  citizens,  and  those  who  lia\'e  been  meiitioneil  would 
probably  not  become  such.  If  the  steanishii)  coin])aii\'  does 
bring  such  j)e()pk'  to  tiiis  country,  tlie  law  coiiipcls  it 
to  take  them  back  free  of  charge,  and  the  company  is  also 
compelled  to  ])ay  a  fine.  But  the  members  of  I'ietro's 
family  were  all  sturdy  and  healthy  and  had  saved  I'uough 
money  so  that  there  was  no  danger  of  their  bccuniing  a  i)ublic 
charge.  Luckily  Pietro's  father  had  arranged  that  a  friend 
who  had  come  to  America  several  years  before  should  meet 
them  when  they  had  passed  their  examination ;  and  when 
they  had  made  their  way  out  of  the  great  room  and  had 
been  really  admitted  to  the  country  of  their  hopi's,  this 
friend  was  waiting  for  them.  He  took  them  to  his  home 
on  the  East  Side  of  New  York,  where  many  others  from 
their  country  liad  preceded  them. 

All  was  so  noisy  and  so  strange !  Cars  ran  on  tracks  over- 
head, cars  plunged  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth,  cars 
clanged  their  way  through  the  middle  of  the  streets.  It  was 
all  so  bewildering  and  so  different  from  the  quiet  little  town 
from  which  Pietro  came.  But  it  was  not  long  before  he 
became  accustomed  to  it  and  had  nnich  more  fun  than  he 
had  had  in  his  own  country.  The  father  and  mother  missed 
the  grass  and  trees  of  their  home  land,  but  always  before 
them  was  that  farm  of  "  maybe  ten  acres  "  which  they  were 
going  to  have  when  they  had  saved  the  moncN'. 

Then  came  school.  Wonderful  stories,  which  the  boy  had 
held  to  be  lies,  had  his  ])laymate  told  him  of  the  schools, 
but  he  found  that  the  half  had  not  been  told  him.  His 
father  had  a  job,  and  things  were  going  well  for  the  family 
in  their  new  surroundings.  When  he  had  been  at  the  school 
for  a  time,  to  his  great  surjirise  he  learned  that  he  wa-^  not 
yet   an   American   citizen.     His   comrades    nicknamed  him 


144  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

"  Pete  the  Ginnie,"  and  when  he  protested,  they  said,  "  You 
are  not  an  American.  Your  father  has  not  been  naturalized." 
Pietro  thought  about  this  for  a  long  time  and  then  in  great 
distress  of  mind  went  to  his  teacher  about  it.  "  What's 
naturalized  ?  "  he  asked.  His  teacher  took  up  a  book  which 
was  lying  on  her  desk  and  read  to  him  as  follows  explaining 
as  she  went  along :  "  The  alien  who  desires  to  become  a 
citizen  must  appear  before  a  court  of  record  at  least  two  years 
before  admission  to  citizenship  and  there  declare  on  oath  his 
intention  to  become  a  citizen  and  to  renounce  his  allegiance 
to  any  other  government.  This  declaration  is  then  recorded, 
and  the  applicant  is  furnished  with  a  copy  of  the  record. 
Two  years  later  the  applicant  for  citizenship  must  appear 
in  open  court,  must  furnish  proof  that  he  has  resided  con- 
tinuously in  the  United  States  for  five  years,  and  in  the  state 
for  one  year,  and  that  he  has  behaved  as  a  man  of  good  moral 
character.  He  must  take  an  oath  to  support  the  con- 
stitution of  the  United  ^States  and  finally  renounce  his 
allegiance  to  any  foreign  government.  These  facts  are  then 
recorded,  and  a  certificate  of  naturalization  is  granted." 

"  Then  this  means  that  if  my  father  takes  out  the  paper 
to-morrow  w^e  shall  have  to  wait  two  years  before  I  shall 
be  a  citizen?  "  Pietro  asked.  "  Yes,  Pietro,"  answered  the 
teacher.  "  You  know  we  have  been  here  three  years  now 
and  it  doesn't  seem  as  if  I  could  wait  much  longer.  You 
say  that  if  my  father  is  a  citizen  it  makes  me  one  ?  "  "  Yes." 
"  Well,  ril  bet  father  won't  wait  much  longer." 

That  night  Pietro  could  hardly  wait  for  his  father  to  come 
home  from  his  work,  so  eager  was  he  to  tell  him  what  he 
thought  he  must  do.  Already  his  father  had  been  thinking 
about  naturalization,  and  it  took  only  the  urging  of  Pietro 
to  start  him  to  take  out  his  first  papers. 


MJ(!l{A'ri()\  14.-) 

The  time  of  waiting  seemed  Umi:  to  the  l)oy,  hut  he  went 
to  school  and  studied  hard,  and  h>  the  time  his  father  was 
ready  to  be  naturalized  you  would  not  h;i\c  known  the 
family  of  five  years  before.  Pietro  indueed  both  his  father 
and  his  mother  to  go  to  night  sehool  and  learn  Mnghsh. 
The  mother  learned  also  how  to  sew  and  to  eook  Anicrican 
dishes.  They  had  changed  the  style  of  clothing  which  they 
wore  in  Italy  for  American  clothes.  The  brotiiers  and 
sisters  spoke  English  more  than  they  did  Italian. 

By  and  by,  the  great  day  came.  There  was  to  be  a  i)ul)lic 
reception  given  to  those  who  were  to  be  admitted  to  citizen- 
ship. So  important  was  the  occasion  considered  that  the 
President  of  the  United  States  was  to  be  there  to  speak  to 
the  new  citizens.  Day  after  day  Pietro  had  drilled  his 
father  on  the  government  of  the  United  States,  its  officers 
and  institutions.  The  father  had  also  attended  a  class  in 
night  school  for  the  instruction  of  foreigners  in  go\t'rnment. 
With  all  this  teaching  Pietro  felt  very  sure  that  his  father 
would  not  fail  in  the  questions  that  would  be  asked  him. 

Dressed  in  their  best  clothes,  the  whole  family  went 
to  the  place  where  the  ceremony  was  to  be  held.  The  hall 
was  crowded,  and  shortly  after  their  arrival,  when  they  had 
settled  themselves  in  their  seats,  there  eame  several  loud 
raps  on  the  rail  above  the  judge's  desk,  "^riic  audience  rose, 
and  the  judge  in  his  long  silk  gown  came  into  the  room. 
As  he  entered  the  door  he  stei)ped  one  side  for  the  President 
to  precede  him.  When  the  judge  and  the  Presi(hiit  were 
sea,ted,  the  audience  sat  down,  and  amid  a  deep  silence  the 
name  of  the  first  one  to  be  examined  was  read.  "It  is  a 
pretty  solenm  thing  to  be  made  a  citizen  of  the  United  States," 
thought  Pietro.  As  each  nauie  was  ealh-d,  the  a])plieant 
for  citizenship  went  forward  to  the  judge's  desk  and  there 


146  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

stood  his  examination.  If  he  passed,  he  renounced  his 
allegiance  to  the  country  of  his  birth  and,  with  his  right 
hand  raised,  took  the  following  Oath  of  Allegiance  to  the 
United  States. 

"It  is  my  intention  to  become  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States  and  to  renounce  absolutely  and  forever  all  allegiance 
and  fidelity  to  any  foreign  prince,  potentate,  state,  or 
sovereignty,  and  particularly  (here  follows  the  name  of  the 
ruler  of  the  country  from  which  the  prospective  citizen 
comes)  of  which  I  am  now  a  subject,  and  it  is  my  intention 
to  reside  permanently  in  the  United  States." 

Among  those  who  took  this  oath  was  Pietro's  father,  for 
he  passed  his  examination  successfully,  thanks  to  Pietro 
and  the  night  school.  "  Now,"  said  Pietro  to  himself,  "  I 
am  a  real  American  citizen." 

Causes  of  immigration.  —  The  cause  which  brought  little 
Pietro's  father  to  America,  the  desire  to  improve  his  financial 
condition,  is  but  one  of  several  which  have  acted  since 
American  history  began.  ]\Iany  of  those  who  came  to 
America  during  our  early  history  came  for  this  reason. 
To-day  it  is  the  chief  reason.  The  Spaniards  sought  for 
wealth  and  in  their  search  explored  vast  tracts  of  country. 
Those  who  came  to  Virginia  were  trying  to  better  their 
condition ;  so,  too,  were  those  who  came  to  Georgia.  The 
Dutch  settled  New  York  that  they  might  have  a  new  center 
of  trade  and  improve  their  circumstances.  The  great  Irish 
immigration  in  1848  was  caused  by  a  potato  famine  in  Ire- 
land which  made  people  so  poor  that  they  wished  to  begin 
life  anew  in  a  new  land. 

A  second  important  cause  of  immigration  is  the  desire  to 
worship  God  as  one  chooses,  or  for  freedom  in  religious 
matters.     New  England  was  settled  by  the  Puritans  who 


MIGRATION 


147 


were  persociited  in  England,  rcnnsylvania  was  settled 
by  the  Quakers  for  the  same  reason.  Lord  Baltimore 
founded  Maryland  as  a  refuge  for  j)erseeuted  ("atliolies. 
Since  1883  there  has  been  a  great  migration  of  the  Jewish 
people  and  of  the  Armenians,  who  have  fled  from  Kur(»j)e 
to  escajH'  the  religious  persecution  they  endured  there. 


Again,  people  have  come  to  America  for  i)olitical  reasons. 
Those  who  have  come  for  this  reast)n  either  could  not  agree 
with  the  forms  of  government  at  home  or  else  were  attracted 
by  the  greater  freedom  enjoyed  in  the  I'liited  States.  The 
reason  for  the  coming  of  the  Puritans  was  partly  political. 
Many  Germans  came  to  America  about  the  iniddK'  of  tin- 
nineteenth  century  because  of  political  conditions  in  their  own 


148  COMMUNITY  CIVICS 

country  at  that  time.  Though  not  as  many  have  come  here 
for  this  reason  as  for  the  others,  yet  it  is  one  of  the  most 
important  causes. 

A  fourth  reason  why  people  have  come  to  the  United  States 
is  that  they  might  escape  the  mihtary  service  required  by 
the  home  country.  Before  the  World  War  almost  all  the 
countries  of  Europe  required  a  certain  term  of  service  in 
the  army.  Such  service  was  so  distasteful  to  many  that 
they  preferred  to  flee  to  a  land  where  it  was  not  required. 

The  spirit  of  adventure  has  brought  some  to  America. 
Though  this  is  perhaps  the  least  of  the  causes  which  has 
given  us  our  immigrant  population,  yet  from  the  time  of  the 
great  adventurer,  John  Smith,  until  to-day,  these  adven- 
turers have  added  some  to  our  numbers. 

Results  of  immigration.  —  The  great  tide  of  immigrants 
which  has  poured  into  our  country  has  made  it  what  it  is, 
but  it  has  also  given  to  our  government  some  of  the  hardest 
problems  it  has  to  solve.  The  congestion  of  the  large  cities 
is  due  in  great  part  to  those  from  foreign  countries.  It  is 
very  natural,  as  you  have  seen  in  the  case  of  Pietro's  family 
(see  p.  14.3),  for  those  who  speak  the  same  language  to  be 
together.  Quite  naturally,  too,  they  keep  the  customs  and 
habits  of  the  mother  country.  This  leads  to  the  second 
of  the  difficulties  which  have  arisen,  that  of  making  citizens 
quickly  out  of  the  newcomers. 

Not  all  foreigners  are  as  anxious  as  Pietro  was  to  become 
citizens.  They  do  not  learn  English  readily,  some  never 
learn  it,  nor  is  it  necessary,  as  the  children  learn  to  speak 
English  and  are  able  to  translate  for  the  help  of  the  older 
ones  in  the  family.  Because  they  do  not  speak  English 
many  do  not  care  to  become  citizens.  For  this  reason, 
too,  it  is  not  easy  for  the  foreigners  to  understand  the  ad- 


MI(iI{ATI()N 


14'.> 


vantages  of  tlie  now  country  and  the  advantages  of  hcconi- 
ing  citizens. 

Sometimes,  too,  foreigners,  as  well  as  those  who  ;iic  hnrn 
in  this  country,  misunderstand  the  meaning  of  thi'  word 
"  liberty."     Liberty  does  not  mean  permission  to  do  as  one 


liar  Deparlmcnt 


Lower  New  York 
Tlic  immigrants'  new  home  as  seen  from  an  airplane. 


chooses,  but  only  permission  to  do  the  way  one  choo.ses  in  so 
far  as  it  does  not  interfere  with  the  rights  of  others.  This 
seems  difficult  for  many  newcomers  to  learn,  and  because 
they  are  deprived  of  certain  privileges,  they  think  the  gov- 
ernment is  in  the  wrong  and  so  refuse  to  become  citizens. 

The  transporting  of  so  maii.\  people  to  a  country  in  a  >liort 
space  of  time,  over  one  niillinn  in  l',l()7,  and  their  ignnrancc  of 


150  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

what  they  are  to  meet  and  of  what  their  surroundings  are 
to  be,  leads  to  many  difficulties.  It  may  be  the  custom  in 
the  home  country  to  keep  chickens,  pigs,  and  cows  in  the 
home  with  the  family,  but  it  is  not  so  here.  Such  a  dif- 
ference in  living  is  not  always  understood.  So  the  foreigner 
is  always  coming  into  conflict  with  American  laws,  and  be- 
cause they  are  not  understood,  he  feels  that  he  is  persecuted 
and  that  our  laws  are  harsh  and  unfair. 

Education  is  the  solution  of  the  problem  (see  Chapter  III). 
Just  as  Pietro  urged  his  people  to  go  to  night  school  to  learn 
English  and  English  customs,  so  to-day  thousands  of  for- 
eigners go  to  the  evening  schools  and  there  learn  the  first 
principles  of  Americanization. 

Migration.  —  In  the  first  chapter  of  the  book  we  learned 
that  a  community  was  founded  by  the  coming  of  people 
already  in  America  to  a  new  place,  where  they  settled.  In 
the  story  of  Pietro  we  learned  that  there  is  a  great  movement 
of  the  people  of  different  nations  to  America.  These  two 
kinds  of  movements  of  people  from  one  place  to  another  in 
the  same  country,  and  from  one  country  to  another,-  are 
going  on  all  the  time.  The  cause  common  to  both  these 
movements  is  the  desire  for  the  betterment  of  one's 
condition.  These  people  wished  for  more  than  they  could 
get  in  the  place  from  which  they  came,  and  they  migrated. 

Perhaps  you  are  a  part  of  such  a  migration.  Have  you 
ever  changed  your  home  from  city  to  country  or  country  to 
city  ?  If  so,  why  ?  Probably  so  that  those  of  your  family  who 
are  older  might  have  better  advantages  for  making  a  li\'ing,  or 
so  that  there  might  be  a  better  chance  for  an  education.  In 
our  early  history  there  was  a  great  migration  to  the  west- 
ward. Land  was  cheap  there,  and  the  roads  to  the  west 
were  crowded  with  people  making  a  change  in  their  living 


MIC.  RAT  I  ON  151 

conditions.  From  1849  to  18li()  the  trails  to  Californiu  wore 
crowded  with  people  going  to  the  gold-fields.  Some  found 
the  gold,  but  many  others  found  something  which  was  better, 
land.     Here  they  settled. 

During  recent  years  there  has  been  a  great  movement 
from  the  country  to  the  cities.  The  bright  lights  of  the 
cities  have  attracted  many  boys  and  girls  away  from  the 
farms.  This  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  the  cities  li;i\c  Ix- 
come  so  crowded  and  why  there  are  so  many  abainloiicd 
farms.  The  person  who  is  thinking  about  giving  up  country 
life  for  city  life  should  study  the  matter  very  carefully  before 
making  the  change.  During  tlie  past  few  years  there  has 
been  a  slight  movement  the  other  way.  IVIany,  like  Pietro's 
father,  wish  to  get  the  "  twenty  acres,"  and  have  gone  from 
the  city  to  the  country.  Here  they  find  good  health,  the 
bright  sky,  the  singing  birds,  and  if  one  knows  how,  as  do  so 
many  of  those  who  come  to  America,  a  much  better  living 
than  in  the  city. 

Government  and  migration.  —  All  these  great  movements 
of  people  are  controlled  by  government  of  .some  sort  (»r 
other.  First  of  all,  the  national  government  says  who  shall 
not  come  into  the  country.  It  establishes  a  quarantine 
station  (see  p.  141),  so  that  those  who  do  come  may  not  bring 
disease  into  the  country.  It  establishes  the  laws  b>-  which 
the  newcomers  are  made  citizens.  (See  ('h;ii)t(T  Will.) 
When  an  immigrant  takes  out  his  first  pai)ers,  the  national 
government  sends  him  a  letter  and  also  one  to  the  school 
authorities  of  the  city  in  wliich  he  lives,  so  that  he  may  go 
to  school.  Societies  have  been  fornicij  by  government  jht- 
mission  to  look  after  the  inunigrants  and  to  help  them. 
The  Nortli' American  Civic  League  for  Inunigrants  and  the 
Traveller's  Aid  Society  are  two  of   them.     T1h>  states  of 


152  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

New  York  and  Massachusetts  have  Immigration  Bureaus 
as  parts  of  the  machinery  of  the  state  government.  The 
United  States  has  a  Bureau  of  Information  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  immigrants  information  regarding  different  parts 
of  the  country  so  that  they  may  make  a  good  choice  of  a 
home.  A  widespread  movement  is  under  way  at  the  present 
time  to  Americanize  all  foreign-born  people,  to  afford  them 
school  facilities,  and  to  train  teachers  to  teach  those 
foreigners  who  attend  the  night  schools. 

Government  also  safeguards  those  who  migrate  from 
place  to  place  in  our  own  country.  Transfers  of  property 
must  be  recorded  (see  Chapter  XXIII),  railroad  rates  for  the 
shipment  of  freight  or  the  carrying  of  people  are  regulated  by 
the  government,  the  safety  of  travelers  is  looked  out  for. 
The  national  government  regulates  what  you  may  carry  from 
one  state  to  another.  In  time  of  war  all  migration  may  be 
forbidden,  or  the  government  may  forbid  foreigners  to  live 
in  places  where  they  may  do  harm  to  the  government.  Some 
states.  New  York,  for  example,  try  to  place  those  without 
work  in  places  where  they  may  make  a  living.  Religious 
freedom  is  guaranteed  to  all,  no  matter  where  one  lives.  A 
jury  trial  may  be  demanded  by  all.  A  person  does  not  lose 
his  citizenship  by  moving  from  one  state  to  another  and 
may  cast  his  ballot  after  he  has  fulfilled  the  residence  quali- 
fications of  the  new  home  to  which  he  goes. 

Questions  for  Investigation 

1.  In  what  ways  does  immigration  help  a  nation?  ^Yhat  harm  may- 
come  to  a  nation  from  its  foreign  population  ? 

2.  Why  do  foreigners  group  together  when  they  come  to  America? 
To  what  evils  does  this  give  rise? 

3.  What  name  is  given  to  an  unnaturalized  foreigner?  What 
rights  has  he  ? 


MIGRATION  15:^ 

4.  How  many  years  have  your  i)eoj)le  been  in  Aincrieii  ?  I'nuii 
what  country  or  countries  did  your  ancestors  come? 

5.  The  descendants  of  how  many  nationahtics  are  re|)rt'scnled  in 
your  cKass  ? 

6.  Locate  any  foreign  colony  you  may  liave  in  your  community. 

7.  If  an  unmarried  woman  of  foreign  birth  comes  to  America,  nuiy 
she  be  naturaUzed  ? 

S.  Why  do  more  immigrants  come  to  America  than  to  other  foreign 
countries  ? 

9.  Why  do  immigrants  coming  to  the  port  of  New  York  luive  to  go 
to  ElHs  Island  before  they  are  permitted  to  land  in  America?  Why 
do  so  many  settle  in  New  York  ? 

10.  How  much  money  is  it  necessary  for  an  immigrant  to  have  before 
he  can  enter  the  United  States  ? 

11.  What  is  "contract  labor"?  Why  is  immigration  of  "contract 
labor"  forbidden? 

12.  Why  does  the  government  of  the  I'nited  States  forbid  the  people 
of  certain  nations  to  settle  in  this  country? 

13.  W^hy  were  some  restrictions  on  immigration  at  the  close  of  the 
war  with  Germany  considered  necessary? 

14.  Are  immigrants  examined  in  any  way  by  tlieir  home  country  be- 
fore they  set  out  for  America  ? 

15.  Are  children  who  are  born  of  foreign  ])aniits  in  tlii-  couiUry 
citizens  ? 

16.  Do  you  think  immigrants  should  be  examined  i)liysi(ally  and 
mentally  before  they  land  in  America  ?     Why  ? 

17.  What  were  the  causes  of  migration  during  colonial  times?  Do 
the  same  causes  act  to-day  to  bring  peojile  to  our  shores? 

18.  Should  immigrants  who  cannot  read  and  write  in  their  own 
language  be  excluded  from  the  country?     Why? 

19.  Why  should  those  of  foreign  birth  who  come  to  settle  in  this 
country  command  our  respect  ? 

20.  What  is  meant  by  "Americanization"?  What  stejjs  is  the 
nation,  through  local,  state,  and  national  go\criiiii(iit>.  taking  to  carry 
out  this  most  important  work? 

21.  If  you  are  a  person  of  foreign  birth,  where  may  you  and  your 
people  go  to  learn  to  read  and  write  and  speak  the  English  language 
well,  so  that  you  may  become  good  citizens? 

22.  Write  a  composition  on  the  subject,  "My  .\ncestral  Country." 

23.  Write  a  composition  on  the  subject,  "Why  I  Prefer  the  United 
States  to  Any  Other  ("omitry." 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  CORRECTION  OF  WRONG-DOERS,  AND 
THE  COURTS 

Reasonableness  of  law.  —  Boys  and  girls  know  that  they 
are  governed  by  laws  which  are  made  for  their  benefit ;  if 
the  laws  are  broken,  punishment  follows.  If  every  one  were 
allowed  to  do  as  he  pleased,  there  would  be  much  trouble 
in  the  community.  Wherever  we  go  laws  are  found  ;  laws 
are  made  which  govern  the  home ;  when  we  go  to  school, 
certain  laws  or  rules  are  found  there  which  must  be  obeyed. 
If  we  look  into  the  matter  we  shall  find  a  reason  for  every 
law  that  is  made.  We  shall  find  that  each  one  contributes 
in  some  manner  to  the  peace  and  order  of  the  community. 
In  a  game  of  baseball  there  are  rules  to  be  followed.  Why  ? 
If  you  play  tennis  you  must  follow  the  rules  of  the  game. 
Why?  In  just  such  a  manner,  if  you  play  the  game  of  life 
properly,  you  must  follow  the  rules,  obey  the  laws  made  for 
the  proper  conduct  of  the  game.  A  city  ordinance  which 
forbids  sliding  down  hill  in  certain  sections  of  your  com- 
munity may  seem  queer  to  you.  Think  it  over  and  see  if 
you  can  find  a  reason  for  such  an  ordinance.  The  rules 
of  the  school  forbid  whispering  at  certain  times  or  forbid 
running  in  the  halls.     Can  you  see  the  reason  for  such  laws  ? 

The  breaking  of  laws  is  followed  by  punishment.  If  you 
break  the  laws  of  the  school  you  are  punished.  If  you 
disobey  your  parents,  punishment  follows.     If  you  break 

154 


THE    CORRECTION    OF    WROXO   DOHliS 


physical  laws  punishment  follows  the  same  as  with  man- 
made  laws.  If  you  eat  too  mucli  you  are  ill..  If  you  expose 
your  face  to  the  cold  too  lonj:;,  \ on  are  fr(»/.eii  and  you  suffer 
pain.  In  just  such  a  man- 
ner punishment  follows 
breakinij;  of  the  laws  of 
the  land.  If  tiie  com- 
munity forbids  playin<i; 
ball  in  the  street,  and  the 
law  is  broken,  one  may 
find  himself  before  the 
police  justice. 

Colonial  punishments. 
—  In  colonial  times  the 
punishments  were  very 
severe,  and  some  of  them 
seem  very  strange  to  us  to- 
day. j\Iany  things  which 
seem  proj)er  to  us  wei-e 
severely  punished  then. 
In  New  England  the  man 
who  kissed  his  wife  on 
the  Sabbath  day  was  con- 
demned to  sit  in  the 
stocks.     The    stocks   and 


PhoUi  by  C.  Enrl  .si/o,«      /-..my;  mj  Unmi  li    nuin, 

The  Stocks 


The  .sU)fks  shown  in  the  picture  were 
in  use  aliout  1S25.     Notice  the  heavy 
manacles  on   the   wrists  of   the  youns 
mail  po>iiig  for  the  picture,  tlie  heavy 
the  l)illorV  were  verv  com-       padlock,  and  the  manner  in  which  the 
_    '  legs  are  coniined. 

mon  forms  of  punishment. 

The  first  person  who  occupied  tlie  stocks  in  Boston  was  the 
man  who  made  them.  "Edward  Palmer  for  his  extorti(»n 
is  fyned  five  pounds  and  censured  to  set  an  hour  in  the 
stocks."  For  women  who  scolded  there  was  the  ducking 
stool.     Men  and  women  were  ecjual  ln'fore  the  hiw,  for  .lane 


156  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

Andrews  who  sold  two  stones  in  a  tub  of  butter,  was  stood 
for  two  hours  at  town  meeting  "  with  her  offense  written  in 
capitall  letters  upon  a  paper  on  her  forehead." 

Boys  and  girls  w-ere  punished  if  they  were  ill-behaved, 
particularly  on  Sunday.  It  is  recorded  that  a  Connecticut 
boy  was  accused  by  the  magistrate  before  whom  he  was 
brought  on  Monday  morning  of  "Rude  and  Idyl  Behavior  in 
the  ]\Ieeting  house.  Such  as  Larfing  and  Smiling  and  Intis- 
ing  others  to  the  Same  evil.  Such  as  Puling  the  hair  of  his 
Neighbor,  Benoni  Simkins,  in  the  Time  of  publick  Worship. 
Such  as  throwing  Sister  Pentecost  Perkins  on  the  ice,  it 
being  the  Sabbath  Day."  Colonial  girls  were  as  naughty 
in  church  as  were  the  boys,  for  Tabitha  Morgus,  a  young 
Connecticut  miss,  is  written  down  as  having  "  prophaned 
the  Lord's  day  by  her  rude  and  indecent  behavior  in  Laugh- 
ing and  Playing  in  ye  time  of  service."  Such  actions  were 
deemed  sufficient  for  bringing  the  culprits  before  the  magis- 
trate and  the  infliction  of  severe  punishment. 

Safeguards  for  the  innocent.  —  It  is  so  important  that 
the  guilty  be  punished  and  the  innocent  go  free,  that  govern- 
ment very  carefully  safeguards  the  rights  of  those  who  are 
accused  of  breaking  the  law.  In  the  eyes  of  the  law  a  person 
is  innocent  until  he  is  proved  guilty.  The  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  carefully  states  the  rights  of  any  accused 
person,  and  since  treason  is  such  a  terrible  crime,  it  defines 
what  it  is.  (See  Chapter  XXV.)  It  states  that  the  trial 
of  all  crimes  except  impeachment  shall  be  by  jury  ;  no  person 
shall  be  held  for  a  serious  crime  except  by  a  formal  accusa- 
tion by  a  body  of  men  met  for  such  purpose,  known  as  a  grand 
jury.  Neither  shall  any  person  be  placed  twice  in  danger  of 
life  and  limb  for  the  same  offense.  No  one  may  be  com- 
pelled to  testify  against  himself,  nor  may  he  be  deprived 


THE    CORRECTION    OF    \VI{0\T;   nOKK's  I.',? 

of  life,  liberty,  or  property  without  a  trial.  From  these  state- 
ments one  may  see  the  government  eannot  he  vindictive 
or  punish  a  person  without  a  cause  as  it  used  to  do  in  early 
times.  P^ormerly  a  kinu;  or  any  one  in  power  (-((uld  seize 
a  person,  throw  him  into  prison,  and  keep  him  there  as 
long  as  he  wished.  The  Constitution  forbids  this,  except 
when  war  makes  such  a  proceeding  necessary.  So  careful 
is  government  of  the  rights  of  the  people,  that  it  even  forliids 
the  imposing  of  extraordinary  fines  and  punishments. 

Not  only  does  the  Constitution  of  the  I'nited  States  safe- 
guard the  innocent  by  its  "  Bill  of  Rights,"  but  in  each  of  the 
constitutions  of  the  different  states  similar  safeguards  have 
been  placed.     In  this  way  the  people  are  twice  guarded. 

Children's  courts.  —  If  a  boy  breaks  a  local  ordinance  by 
playing  ball  in  the  street,  he  may  be  placed  under  arrest 
by  an  officer.  Pie  is  ordered  to  rcj^ort  the  next  day  to  the 
office  of  the  children's  court  acc()nii)anied  by  his  parents. 
If  the  local  community  has  no  such  court,  he  is  sent  to  the 
office  of  the  police  justice  or  justice  of  the  i)eace.  Here  the 
case  against  the  accused  is  stated,  witnesses  for  each  side 
may  be  called,  and  when  the  judge  is  satisfied  that  he  has  the 
truth  of  the  matter  he  may  impose  sentence  if  guilt  is  proved. 
Those  who  have  committed  a  more  serious  offense  against  the 
peace  of  the  community  may  be  taken  from  their  homes  and, 
after  conviction,  placed  in  a  reforn^.  scliool  or  other  institu- 
tion, where  they  are  taught  obedience  to  the  law.  In  many 
of  the  juvenile  courts  to-day  the  boy  or  girl  is  placed  on 
honor.  "  Some  judges  make  a  practice  of  sending  a  boy 
without  guards  to  report  to  a  rather  distant  reform  school. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that,  where  the  juvenile  court  judge 
or  probation  officers  use  good  judgment,  they  are  rarely  <lis- 
appointed  by  the  boys  and  girls." 


158 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


More  serious  cases.  —  For  convenience  in  bringing  cases 
to  trial  they  are  divided  into  two  classes,  civil  and  criminal 
cases.  The  first  class  consists  of  those  cases  in  which  there 
is  a  quarrel  between  two  persons ;  the  other  consists  of  those 
in  which  the  state  or  the  nation  seeks  the  punishment  of  an 
individual.     The  punishment  of  the  serious  crimes  is  more 

formal  than  that  of  a 
juvenile  case.  Let  us  see 
how  a  murder  case  is  con- 
ducted. When  a  murder 
is  committed,  the  first 
thing  government  does 
is  to  arrest  the  one 
supposed  to  be  guilty. 
Sometimes  this  is  done 
only  after  a  long  time, 
at  other  times  the  person 
is  arrested  on  the  spot. 
Such  an  arrest  may  be 
made  by  any  one,  who  then  turns  the  ofl"ender  over  to 
the  proper  officer,  a  policeman,  a  constable,  a  sheriff's  officer 
or  a  state  trooper.  Arrests  are  usually  made  by  the  officer 
chosen  by  the  community  to  keep  the  peace.  ]\Iany  times, 
however^  the  arrest  is  made  only  after  a  warrant  has  been 
issued.  A  warrant  is  a  document  which  contains  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  criminal  and  a  statement  of  the  crime.  It  may 
be  obtained  by  any  one  who  feels  reasonably  sure  of  the  guilt 
of  the  party  to  be  arrested.  It  is  usually  obtained  by  one 
of  the  officials  of  the  community  chosen  to  keep  its  peace, 
from  a  magistrate  of  some  sort,  justice  of  the  peace,  city 
judge,  or  other  such  official.  In  serving  the  warrant,  that 
is,  in  making  the  arrest,  the  officer  may  go  to  any  length. 


A  Model  Lock-up  in  a  Small 
Community 


THE   CORRECTIOX    OF   W RON' (J  DOERS  1.59 

even  to  killinj]:  the  accused,  if  he  threatens  the  hh-  of  the 
officer  and  is  on  the  point  of  carryin^^  out  his  threat. 

The  prisoner  is  placed  in  jail  and  kept  there  for  sife  keep- 
ing until  his  trial.  In  cases  other  than  niunh  r,  he  i>  allowed 
to  be  at  liberty  after  he  has  been  taken  l)ef()re  a  magistrate 
and  the  charges  against  him  have  been  heard.  i)r(»vided  a 
person  is  found  who  will  furnish  bail.  Tliis  means  that 
friends  of  tlie  accused  may  furnish  a  sum  of  money  or  other 
security  which  will  be  forfeited  to  the  state  if  the  accused 
runs  away  before  he  is  brought  to  trial. 

The  indictment  and  the  grand  jury.  —  In  a  majority  of 
states  as  soon  as  the  ])ris()ner  is  lodged  in  jail,  the  jjrosecut- 
ing  attorney,  representing  the  power  of  the  state,  draws  up  a 
bill  of  indictment  and  j)resents  it  to  the  grand  jury.  The 
indictment  is  the  formal  charge,  in  writing,  against  the 
accused. 

The  grand  jury  is  a  body  of  men  drawn  by  lot  from  the 
inhabitants  of  the  county.  Its  number  is  not  K'ss  than  twebc 
nor  more  than  twenty-three,  the  mimber  \arying  in  dif- 
ferent states.  A  common  number  is  fifteen.  To  this  body, 
which  meets  at  stated  times  a  year,  or  to  a  sjx'cial  grand 
jury  which  may  be  smnmoned  by  the  proper  authorities, 
the  public  prosecutor  brings  the  bill  of  indictment  and  al.so 
summons  the  necessary  witnesses  to  sujiport  the  indictment. 
If  the  grand  jury  thinks  sufficient  evidence  has  been  presented 
to  hold  the  accused  for  trial,  the  words  "  a  true  bill  "  are 
written  across  the  face  of  the  indictment .  and  the  prisoner 
is  held  for  the  trial  jury.  If  the  jur\  thinks  the  e\  idenee 
against  the  accused  is  insufficient,  he  is  set  free.  .\  prisoner 
may  have  a  lawyer  and  summon  witnesses  in  his  own  behalf. 
If  he  is  too  poor  to  afi'ord  this,  a  lawyer  is  assigned  him  by  the 
court. 


160 


COMMUNITY    CIVICS 


The  trial. — When  the  time  for  the  trial  arrives,  the  accused 
is  brought  into  court  before  the  judge,  and  the  clerk  of  the 
court  reads  the  indictment.  To  this  the  prisoner  pleads 
"  guilty  "  or  "  not  guilty."     If  he  pleads  guilty,  he  is  at  once 


Courtesy  of  Rutherford  llayncr 
A  Scene  in  a  Court  Room 

At  the  left  of  the  judge  (center)  sits  the  court  clerk,  near  whom  stand 
the  sheriff  and  his  deputy.  At  the  right  of  the  judge  sits  the  court  stenog- 
rapher, and  near  him  stands  the  court  crier.  The  jury  sits  in  the  jury  box 
on  the  right.  In  front  of  the  sheriff  is  a  witness  and  near  him  is  an  inter- 
preter. In  the  foreground  are  the  prisoner  and  his  jailor.  The  four  men 
standing  are  the  attorneys  for  the  defense  and  the  district-attorney  and  his 
assistant. 

sentenced  by  the  judge  and  the  sentence  of  the  court  is 
carried  out.  If  he  pleads  "  not  guilty  "  the  trial  takes  place. 
A  number  of  names  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  county  are 
drawn  for  trial  jurors  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  drawing  for 
grand  jurors.  Of  these  men,  twelve  are  chosen  to  hear  the 
evidence  given  at  the  trial.  The  prosecuting  attorney  makes 
the  opening  speech,  stating  the  facts  he  expects  to  prove. 


THE    CORRECTIOX    OF    WliOXCi   D()i;i{S  Itil 

and  summons  liis  witnesses.  TIicso  witnesses  are  examined 
by  the  prosecuting  attorney  and  by  the  counsel  for  the  de- 
fense. The  witnesses  for  the  prisoner  are  then  examined  by 
both  lawyers,  and  both  sum  uj)  the  evidence  presi-nted. 
The  judge  then  states  the  law  to  the  jury  and  the  possible 
})unishment  for  the  various  degrees  of  guilt.  The  jury  retires 
and  considers  the  case.  ^V!len  the  tweh'e  men  reach  an 
agreement,  they  return  to  the  court  room,  and  the  foreman  of 
the  jury,  that  is,  the  one  chosen  as  its  chairman,  announces 
the  decision,  called  the  "  verdict."  If  the  verdict  is  "  guilty," 
the  judge  pronounces  sentence,  either  then  or  a  few  days  later. 
If  the  verdict  is  "  not  guilty,"  the  prisoner  is  discharged. 
If  the  jury  fails  to  agree  on  a  verdict,  it  is  discharged,  and  a 
new  trial  maybe  ordered  with  a  new  jury.  In  some  of  the 
states  only  nine  or  ten  of  the  twelve  men  need  agree  on  the 
verdict.  In  a  majority  of  the  states  the  verdict  must  be 
unanimous.  Other  criminal  cases  are  conducted  in  practi- 
cally the  same  manner  as  the  one  already  outlined. 

A  civil  case  is  tried  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  used  in  a 
criminal  case.  If  a  i)ers()n  feels  harmed  by  some  one  else 
or  by  a  corporation,  he  may  l)ring  suit  against  that  person 
or  corporation  for  damages.  A  corjjoration  may  also  bring 
such  a  suit.  The  two  parties  to  the  dispute  are  known  as 
the  plaintiflf  and  the  defendant,  the  one  bringing  the  charge, 
and  the  other  defending  tlu>  suit  Sometimes  a  jury  is 
drawn  in  the  sam(>  way  as  in  a  criminal  case  ;  souictimes  the 
witnesses  give  their  facts  before  a  judge,  who  listens  care- 
fully to  the  case  and  then  pronounces  judgment. 

Solemnity  of  a  court.  —  If  you  shoidd  gt)  into  a  court 
room  you  would  be  impressed  at  once  with  the  air  of  gn-at 
solemnity  which  pervades  the  whole  proceedings.  \x  the 
call  of  the  clerk  announcing  the  entrance  of  the  judge,  clad 


162  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

in  his  silken  robe  of  office,  every  one  in  the  room  rises  in  his 
place  and  remains  standing  until  the  judge  is  seated.  There 
is  no  loud  talking  in  the  room  ;  everything  is  done  in  a  quiet 
manner.  Any  refusal  on  the  part  of  a  witness  to  answer 
questions  asked  may  be  severely  punished  by  the  judge, 
as  also  may  any  disorder  on  the  part  of  the  audience.  Any 
disrespect  shown  the  judge  on  the  part  of  a  witness,  a  lawyer 
or  any  one  in  the  room  may  be  punished  either  by  a  fine  or 
by  imprisonment,  or  both.  If  the  spectators  are  noisy, 
even  by  applause,  the  judge  may  order  the  court  room 
cleared  and  refuse  to  go  on  with  the  case  until  this  is  done. 
Rights  of  the  accused.  —  So  important  is  the  matter  of  a 
fair  trial  for  every  one  brought  into  court,  that  the  United 
States  Constitution  specifies  the  rights  of  the  accused  as 
follows  —  (see  Chapter  XXV)  : 

(1)  he  must  have  a  reasonable  bail ; 

(2)  he  must  be  supplied  with  a  copy  of  the  accusation 
against  him ; 

(3)  he  cannot  be  forced  to  act  as  a  witness,  though  he  may 
do  this  if  it  seems  best ; 

(4)  he  must  have  a  speedy  trial  before  a  jury  whose  im- 
partiality has  been  tested  by  the  attorneys  of  each  side ; 

(5)  if  acquitted,  he  may  not  be  brought  to  trial  the  second 
time  for  the  same  crime. 

Punishment  of  a  crime.  —  After  a  person  has  been  sen- 
tenced by  a  judge,  he  is  taken  to  the  prison  provided  by  the 
state  or  nation  for  his  punishment.  A  great  change  has 
taken  place  in  recent  years  in  the  treatment  of  those  who  are 
unfortunate  enough  to  be  shut  up  in  prison.  Until  recent 
years,  the  sentences  imposed  on  convicted  criminals  were  for 
the  purpose  of  punishment  and  retribution  for  the  wrong 
committed,  or  by  the  horrible  punishment  inflicted,  to  keep 


THE    CORRECTIOX    OF    WliOXd    DOEUS 


103 


people  from  committiiijj;  criinc.     Neither  of  tlicsc  iMctlK.ds 
was  successful  in  lesseniiiij;  criiiie. 

Changes  in  methods  of  punishment.  To-dav  i)imisli- 
ments  are  given  to  make  the  wronj,'-(loer  i)a\  the  jtenalty 
for  his  crime,  but  with  this  difference  —  every  effort  is  now 
made  to  reform  the  criminal  an<l  turn  him  from  his  e\il  wavs. 


1  iiiiiii  ' 
1  !J!!! 


PiusuN  Cklls  in  a  Modern  Prison 


So  successful  has  this  treatment  been  that  a  gentleman 
connected  with  the  Prisoners'  Relief  Society  stated  that 
ninety-five  per  cent  of  the  prisoners  who  have  left  prison 
and  have  been  given  a  chance,  ha\e  made  good.  "  Muring 
the  three  years  from  1014  to  l'.M7  nine  thousand  five 
hundred  men  who  have  been  released  from  prison  foinid 
employment."    About  twenty  thousand  employers  in  various 


164 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


parts  of  the  country  are  helping  to  give  emplo\Tiient  to 
former  convicts. 

Hope  for  the  future.  —  It  is  hoped  that  some  day  the 
prisons  will  no  longer,  be  places  where  men  and  women 
are  herded  together  like  animals,  places  where  cruel  and  in- 
human punishments  are  inflicted.     Schools  have  been  estab- 


Ball  Game  between  OrFicERb  and  Inmates,  Auburn,  N.  Y. 

lished  in  many  prisons,  for  society  has  learned  at  last  that 
the  great  majority  of  the  crimes  have  been  committed  either 
through  ignorance  or  because  the  criminal  was  weak  mentally. 
In  many  prisons,  the  inmates  are  treated  in  a  thoroughly 
humane  manner.  They  are  permitted  such  pleasures  as  may 
seem  proper  to  the  officials  in  charge  of  them.  Many  prisons 
have  baseball  leagues  of  their  own,  and  the  severest  punish- 


THE    CORRECTIOX    OF   WRONTl   DoKRS 


lOn 


ment  that  can  be  inflicted  upon  a  ])risont'r  tor  hrcakiiiK  the 
rules  of  the  prison,  is  to  he  forbidden  to  see  the  ball  ^iiiiies 
when  they  are  played.  Ueeently  a  sf|uad  of  j)risoiiers  fn)iii 
one  of  the  prisons  in  New  York  state  were  permitted  to  spentl 
the  summer  repairing  a  stretch  of  state  road  some  miles  from 
the  prison.     They  were  on  their  honor  and  under  only  a  small 


Inmates  of  a  Prison  WOuKiNt;  in  Shop 


guard.  Two  of  the  prisoners  broke  their  i);irole  an<l  ran 
away.  The  others  were  so  angry  that  the\-  begged  their 
guards  to  allow  them  to  try  to  catch  the  runaways.  When 
permission  was  granted,  it  was  not  long  before  the  culprit- 
were  taken.  ISTost  prisons  have  done  away  with  the  stripe.l 
clothing,  the  clipped  hair,  and  the  lock  step,  as  these  ten.) 
to  degrade   a  prisoner.     In    some   prisons   mutual    welfare 


166  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

leagues  have  been  formed  which  rule  the  prison  somewhat 
as  self  government  does  the  schools. 

Society  is  learning  that  many  who  have  committed  some 
crime  and  been  sent  to  prison  are  not  really  to  blame.  Be- 
cause of  their  surroundings  and  associates,  it  would  have 
been  almost  impossible  for  these  persons  not  to  become 
criminals.  To  do  away  with  these  bad  conditions,  many 
societies  are  waging  a  war  for  the  prevention  of  crime. 
Compulsory  school  laws  are  passed  to  make  all  children  get 
an  education ;  the  slums  are  wiped  out ;  a  constitutional 
amendment  has  been  passed  which  forbids  the  sale  of 
liquor.  The  conditions  surrounding  those  who  might 
become  criminals  are  so  improved  that  it  is  hoped 
the  number  of  those  who  have  to  go  to  prison  will  be 
decreased. 

New  methods  of  prison  sentence.  —  In  addition  to  the 
methods  mentioned  in  the  previous  paragraph,  recently  a 
new  method  of  sentencing  those  who  have  committed  crime 
has  been  used.  The  one  who  has  committed  his  first  offense 
against  the  law  is  no  longer  shut  up  with  the  old  hardened 
offender.  In  many  states  after  a  person  has  served  a  part  of 
his  sentence,  he  is  placed  on  probation,  or  parole.  If  he 
again  commits  a  crime,  he  has  to  serve  out  the  remaining 
part  of  his  original  sentence.  In  many  cases  a  judge  no 
longer  sentences  a  wrong-doer  to  a  definite  sentence.  As 
soon  as  the  prisoner  shows  that  he  is  sincere  in  his  reformation 
and  intends  to  "  go  straight,"  he  may  be  released  on  parole. 
Som.etimes  the  judge  suspends  sentence  and  places  the 
prisoner  on  probation.  He  has  to  report  to  the  judge  or 
other  stated  officer  at  definite  times  to  show  that  he  is  living 
a  good  life.  When  he  shows  by  his  behavior  that  he  is 
going  to   continue  to  be  a  good   citizen,   the   sentence   is 


THE    CORRECTION    OF    VVHOXCi   DOKRS  1(17 

lifted.  This  is  often  the  way  a  sentence  is  ^Wrw  lo  hoys 
and  <i;irls  who  are  brought  to  the  ju\-enile  eonrts. 

The  courts.  —  l*erh;ii)s  you  nw  hcconiin^'  sotiKwhat  be- 
wildered with  tlic  nuinhcr  and  \aricty  of  jiid^^cs  that  lia\e 
been  thus  far  mentioned  in  tiiis  chapter, —  justices  (tf  tlir 
peace,  city  judges,  police  court  judges,  county  judges.  \vt 
there  are  more  of  them.  Government  is  .so  anxious  that  no 
person  shall  be  punished  until  lie  is  really  i)ro\'cn  guih\ , 
that  it  has  provided  courts  to  which  aj)i)eals  may  be  made 
from  the  lower  courts.  In  addition,  there  are  some  matters 
which  have  to  do  with  state  and  national  aflairs  which  <h- 
mand  state  and  national  courts. 

Ivich  state  has  established  several  courts.  Most  of  the 
commonwealths  have  what  are  known  as  circuit  courts  or 
district  courts,  so  named  because  the  judges  travel  from 
district  to  district  to  hear  cases.  Abo\e  this  is  the  sui»reiiie 
court  of  the  state,  the  highest  trii)unal  in  tiie  conunoii- 
wealth.  These  state  courts  have  the  jxiwer  of  changing 
the  decisions  of  the  lower  courts  if  they  thiid<  a  wrong  has 
been  done  in  the  case  on  trial. 

United  States  courts.  —  In  addition  to  the  state  courts 
are  the  federal  or  national  courts.  Their  judges  are 
appointed  by  the  President  with  tlie  consent  of  the  senate. 
Offenses  again.st  the  laws  of  the  national  government  are 
tried  in  these  courts.  Crimes  sucli  as  counterfeiting  the 
luoney  of  the  nation,  breaking  the  food  and  <h-ug  laws,  in- 
fringing on  patents  and  copyrights,  are  tried  before  the 
national  judges.  Others  hear  appeals  from  the  lower  courts 
of  the  states.  The  court  of  customs  appeals  decides  the  ques- 
tions arising  from  the  decisions  made  in  classifying  articles 
brought  into  the  country.  In  some  cases  an  appeal  may  be 
made  to  the  national  courts  from  the  (le(i>ion  of  a  state  conrt. 


168  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

The  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States.  —  The  highest 
of  all  the  courts  in  the  nation  is  known  as  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States.  It  is  equal  in  dignity  to  the 
President  and  to  Congress,  and  has  played  a  very  important 
part  in  the  government.  Let  us  pay  a  visit  to  a  sitting  of 
the  court. 

The  court  meets  in  what  was  formerly  the  senate  chamber 
in  the  capitol.  Across  the  corridor  from  this  room  is  the 
robing  room  where  the  nine  justices  meet  a  little  before  twelve 
each  day,  except  Saturday,  to  put  on  their  black  silk  robes  of 
office.  When  the  court  was  organized  in  Washington's 
administration,  there  was  a  great  deal  of  discussion  as  to 
how  its  members  should  be  dressed.  Some  wished  the 
judges  to  wear  robes  and  large  wigs  such  as  the  English 
judges  wore.  "  For  heaven's  sake,"  exclaimed  Thomas 
Jefferson,  "  discard  the  monstrous  wig,  which  makes  the 
English  judges  look  like  rats  peeping  tln*ough  bunches  of 
oakum,"  So  our  judges  followed  his  advice  and  wear  the 
gowns  but  not  the  wigs.  A  passageway  across  the  corridor 
is  roped  off  by  silken  cords,  and  the  court,  led  by  the  Chief 
Justice  and  followed  by  the  other  judges  in  the  order  of  their 
appointment,  marches  slowly  across  the  corridor  and  into 
the  court  room.  Here  everybody  rises  when  the  marshal  of 
the  court  announces  the  arrival  of  the  judges  and  remains 
standing  until  the  judges  are  seated.  The  judges  are  seated 
behind  a  high  desk,  with  the  chief  justice  in  the  center.  After 
formal  notice  is  given,  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  is  open  for  business. 

The  court  is  assisted  by  the  necessary  officials,  clerks, 
marshals,  and  pages.  Mr.  Haskin  in  his  "  American  Govern- 
ment "  says  :  "  The  pages  of  the  Supreme  Court  are  an  inter- 
esting lot  of  young  fellows.     They  must  wear  their  knicker- 


THE    CORRECTION    OF    WROXd -D()F':rs  1G9 

bockers  as  long  as  they  continue  to  serve  as  such,  and  tliis 
brings  about  the  somewhat  hidicrous  situation  of  a  full 
fledged  lawyer  going  around  in  boy's  clothes.  They  ciniic 
in  when  they  are  small  boys  and  Ix'gin  to  read  law  imnie- 
diately  thereafter.  By  the  time  they  are  grown  tlicy  are 
well  advanced  in  law,  and  when  they  reach  their  majority 
they  are  ready  to  be  admitted  t()  i)ractice." 

This  court  has  control  only  of  certain  cases,  which  are 
designated  in  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  Their 
most  important  duty  is  to  declare  whether  any  law,  local, 
state,  or  national,  in  their  judgment,  conflicts  with  the  (\)u- 
stitution.  Most  of  the  cases  which  come  before  it  are  such 
as  are  appealed  to  it  from  lower  courts,  but  it  also  settles 
all  cases  in  which  the  United  States  is  a  party,  and  ((uarrels 
between  states.  If  the  ambassador  from  France  should  be 
arrested  for  breaking  the  laws,  he  would  be  tricfl  before  the 
Supreme  Court,  as  it  has  been  given  original  jurisdiction 
in  such  cases. 

Questions  for  Inwestigatio.v 

1.  What  does  your  state  do  to  reform  those  who  are  in  its  prisons? 

2.  What  work  does  the  Salvation  Army  do  to  give  dischar^jcd 
prisoners  a  new  start  in  life  ? 

3.  Who  has  charge  of  the  prisons  and  reformatories  in  your  state? 
How  was  he  chosen  for  that  office?  Is  he  trying  any  means  of  prison 
reform  ? 

4.  Are  ahens  subject  to  the  same  punishments  for  crime  as  citizens? 

Is  tliis  right  ?     Why  ? 

5.  Do  you  think  there  is  any  (hfrerence  in  tlie  munlx-rs  of  those 
needing  correction  since  the  prohil)ition  amen<iinent  to  tlie  (\institii- 
tion  of  the  United  States  went  into  effect?  What  leads  you  to  this 
conclusion  ? 

6.  Describe  the  work  of  the  state  constabulary  of  Pmusylvania  or 
New  York,  in  arresting  criminals.  Do  you  think  there  should  lx«  a 
similar  body  in  your  state  ?     Why  ? 


170  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

7.  Should  a  person  be  given  a  light  or  a  severe  sentence  for  the  first 
offense  against  the  law  ?     Why  ? 

8.  If  you  should  have  to  be  taken  before  a  judge,  what  kind  of 
person  would  you  like  him  to  be  ? 

9.  Do  you  know  of  any  laws  in  your  community  which  are  not 
enforced  ?     Why  are  they  not  enforced  ? 

10.  Some  people  are  opposed  to  the  death  penalty  for  serious  crimes. 
Can  you  give  any  reasons  for  this  ? 

11.  What  are  the  rights  given  by  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  to  every  person  accused  of  crime  ? 

12.  Should  convict  labor  be  used  in  any  of  the  occupations  of  the 
state  to  make  up  for  a  shortage  of  labor  ?     \Miy  ? 

13.  Why  are  there  laws  in  some  states  against  the  use  of  prison-made 
goods  ? 

14.  What  com-ts  are  there  in  your  community  to  take  care  of  those 
accused  of  crime?     How  are  the  judges  chosen? 

1.5.  ^^^lat  courts  has  your  state  to  which  appeals  may  be  made  or 
which  have  charge  of  the  more  serious  crimes?  How  are  these  judges 
chosen  ? 

16.  Select  a  half  dozen  laws  of  the  community  and  show  their 
reasonableness. 

17.  How  does  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  define  treason? 
How  many  witnesses  are  necessary  to  prove  the  accusation  ?  WTiat  is 
the  punislmient  for  treason? 


CHAPTER    XT 

THE  NEEDY  AND  DEPENDENT 

There  are  people  in  every  community  who  cannot  care 
for  themselves  and  who  are  therefore  dependent  on  help  from 
others.  This  need  for  help  may  he  from  no  fault  of  the 
dependent,  as  in  the  case  of  children  who  are  lacking'  the 
care  of  their  parents,  or  people  who  have  become  so  old 
they  can  no  longer  work.  All  of  us  are  dependent  on  our 
parents  in  our  early  years  for  our  support.  They  gi\e  us 
food,  clothing,  a  home,  and  an  education  so  that  when  we 
grow  up  we  are  the  better  able  to  support  ourselves  and  our 
families.  We  do  not  think  of  oursehes  at  that  tinii-  as 
objects  of  charity,  but  what  our  j)arents  do  for  us,  the  com- 
munity has  to  do  for  some  of  its  citizens.  For  this  reason 
we  should  always  be  ready  to  listen  to  the  calls  for  help  from 
the  really  needy. 

Causes  of  need  of  help.  —  There  are  many  causes  of  this 
need  for  help.  Sometimes  need  arises  from  the  surroundings 
in  which  people  are  placed  ;  for  exam])le,  di.sa.sters  arising 
from  earthquakes,  fire,  or  famine.  The  great  eartluiuake 
in  San  Francisco,  the  great  fire  in  Chicago,  and  the  famine 
in  Armenia  are  examples  of  this.  Perhaps  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  calls  for  help  are  due  to  personal  (lisal)ilit.\ .  Such  are 
blindness,  feeblemindedness,  and  insanity.  Moral  defects, 
such  as  dishonesty,  laziness,  shiftlessness,  bring  man\  to 
want.     Sickness  and  accidents  dvv  prohfie  causes  of  need 

171 


172  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

Probably  one  third  of  all  cases  calling  for  help  are  caused  by 
sickness. 

A  third  set  of  causes  are  called  social  causes.  First  among 
these  come  the  changes  which  take  place  in  industry  and 
which  affect  many  workmen.  Some  belong  to  trades  in  which 
there  is  work  only  a  part  of  the  year.  Workmen  are  some- 
times thrown  out  of  employment  by  strikes.  We  have 
learned  what  poverty  is  caused  by  unrestrained  ambition 
which  brought  on  a  horrible  w^ar  to  satisfy  a  love  for  power. 

Education.  —  It  is  true  of  a  great  majority  of  the  needy  that 
they  are  lacking  in  education.  (See  Chapter  III.)  Educa- 
tion helps  to  do  away  with  poverty.  The  boys  and  girls 
who  leave  school  before  it  is  necessary  for  the  sake  of  a 
"  job  "  find  themselves  in  later  life  in  a  "  blind  alley  "  occupa- 
tion ;  that  is,  one  in  which  it  is  impossible  to  advance. 
Statistics  tell  us  that  the  money  they  receive  for  the  last 
position  they  hold  will  be  the  same  as  for  the  first  one.  They 
have  made  no  advance,  and  in  later  life  find  it  hard  to  get 
any  position.  If  they  had  made  use  of  the  advantages  offered 
by  the  schools,  they  would  have  been  able  to  advance.  The 
boy  who  wishes  to  become  a  skilled  mechanic,  who  can  read 
the  micrometer  and  has  some  knowledge  of  geometry,  other 
things  being  equal,  has  a  better  chance  of  advancement 
than  the  boy  who  cannot  do  these  things.  The  girl  who  be- 
comes a  clerk,  studies  methods  of  salesmanship,  and  has 
some  knowledge  of  the  materials  she  sells  and  how  to  use 
them,  has  a  better  chance  of  advancement  than  the  one  with- 
out an  education.  The  "  job  "  may  look  big  at  first  and  the 
rhoney  received  seem  much  better  than  school,  but  it  is  the 
future  and  its  work  that  must  be  looked  to. 

Intemperance  and  poverty.  —  Aside  from  the  other  evils 
which  follow  in  its  train,  it  is  estimated  that  intemperance  has 


THE    NEEDY    AND    DKl'llNDKNTT  173 

caused  about  one  fifth  of  all  cases  of  depciKleiicy.  Money 
which  should  be  spent  for  the  support  of  tlic  family  has  been 
spent  in  the  saloon.  "  The  bread-winner  who  puts  an  riicniy 
into  his  mouth  to  steal  away  his  brains  is  incapacitated 
for  industry  and  responsibility  ;  .  .  .  strong'  men  become 
feeble  and  destitute  through  the  drink  habit."  Two  biihon 
dollars  has  been  spent  every  year  for  drink ;  this  is  enough 
to  pay  the  whole  debt  of  the  nation  as  it  was  ju>t  before  the 
war  with  Germany.  To  this  waste  must  be  added  tlieanionnt 
spent  by  communities  in  aid  of  those  rendered  needy  by  the 
money  spent  for  liquor.  It  is  expected  that  the  amend- 
ment to  the  federal  constitution  passed  in  1919,  prohibiting 
the  sale  and  use  of  intoxicating  liquor  as  a  beverage,  will,  in  a 
large  degree,  lessen  the  evils  springing  from  intem])erance. 

War  and  poverty.  —  War  has  been  mentioned  as  a  cause  of 
poverty.  Those  who  have  lived  through  the  World  War  have 
no  need  to  be  told  of  the  awful  want  and  misery  war  costs. 
Sometimes  it  is  necessary  for  a  nation  to  fight,  e\en  as  it 
was  for  us,  to  help  to  make  "the  world  a  decent  place  to 
live  in."  War  kills  or  incapacitates  the  supj)orts  of  the 
family,  destroys  towns  or  In-eaks  them  up,  and  scatters 
families.  The  whole  world  was  aghast  at  the  rnin  wrought 
in  Belgium,  the  horrors  in  Poland,  the  famines  in  that  part 
of  France  held  by  Germany.  So  great  was  the  devastation 
wrought  by  this  war,  and  so  destitute  were  those  whom  war 
touched  that  the  whole  world  was  glad  to  render  help.  Kvery 
one  learned  that  it  was  more  blessed  to  give  than  to  recei\-e. 

Laziness  and  poverty.  —  Another  cause  of  j)overty  that 
has  been  mentioned  is  laziness.  We  have  large  numbers 
of  people  who  are  poor  because  they  will  not  work.  .Vgainst 
such,  some  states  have  passed  laws  which  make  them  work 
or  go  to  prison.    Many  are  living  on  Ihc  community  or  jirt* 


174  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

supported  by  their  families.  Others  are  equally  lazy,  but 
wander  from  place  to  place  ;  these  we  call  "  hobos  "  or  tramps. 
They  beg  food  at  our  back  doors,  steal  rides  on  the  trains, 
and  some  become  petty  criminals.  It  is  wrong  to  give 
food  or  money  to  beggars  who  come  to  our  homes,  or  to 
those  whom  we  see  on  the  streets  who  are  evading  the 
laws  against  begging  by  pretending  to  offer  pencils  or 
other  worthless  articles  for  sale.  The  professional  beggar 
is  often  more  able  to  give  than  the  one  who  gives  to  him. 
It  is  a  very  bad  thing  to  give  indiscriminately,  as  it  makes 
the  people  to  whom  the  gifts  are  made  continue  in  this  easy 
and  dishonorable  way  of  getting  a  living,  and  may  induce 
others  to  try  such  a  means  of  living  without  working. 

Methods  of  relief.  —  The  care  of  the  needy  is  usually  the 
affair  of  the  local  community,  because  each  community 
knows  best  the  needs  of  the  persons  living  in  it.  There  are 
two  general  methods  of  granting  public  help  to  the  needy ; 
(1)  outdoor  relief,  or  that  given  in  their  homes  to  those 
who  are  dependents;  and  (2)  indoor  relief,  relief  through 
placing  the  dependent  person  in  an  institution  maintained 
either  by  government  or  by  private  means. 

Outdoor  relief  is  carried  on  by  the  local  community,  which 
usually  raises  the  money  for  this  purpose  by  taxation. 
Officials  are  usually  elected  or  appointed  to  have  charge 
of  this  fund  and  see  that  it  is  worthily  applied.  Through 
this  means  families  are  supplied  with  food,  clothing,  fuel  or 
other  necessities.  The  great  danger  from  such  help  is  that 
the  shiftless  and  the  lazy  come  to  rely  on  it  rather  than  on 
working  to  earn  a  living.  "  Nearly  all  the  experiences  in 
this  country  indicate  that  outdoor  relief  is  a  source  of  corrup- 
tion in  politics,  of  expense  to  the  community,  and  of  degrada- 
tion and  increased  pauperization  to  the  poor." 


THE    NEEDY   AND    DEPENDENT 


Almost  every  oominuiuty  lias  one  or  more  societies  for  the 
relief  of  the  needy.  The  result  has  been  that  imich  of  the 
work  has  been  duplicated,  and  unscrupulous  jM-rsons  have 
made  a  good  living  by  ap])lying  to  tiie  difVcrent  societies 
in  turn  and  getting  help  from  all.  To  do  away  with  this 
evil,  at  the  present  time  many  cities  are  forming  associations 
to  look  more  carefully  after  the  spending  of  money  for  the 
poor.  The  association  gives  only  after  each  case  has  been 
examined  fairly,  tries  to  prevent  the  need   of  charity   l)y 


An  Orphan  Asylum 


Courlesu  of  Rutherford  Hayner 


Here  the  coniinuuity  provides  a  home  for  those  who  have  been  so  unfortunate 
as  to  lose  their  parents. 

visits  to  the  homes  of  the  poor  and  the  shiftless,  and  gives 
advice  which  will  make  persons  self-sui)porting.  Help  is 
refused  to  those  who  will  not  try  to  help  themselves. 

Indoor  relief. — ^  Except  in  New  Knglantl.  where  a  poor- 
farm  is  maintained  by  most  communities,  the  counties  in 
most  of  the  commonwealths  maintain  an  alms-hou.se  in 
which  those  who  through  age  or  incapacity  camiot  supj)ort 
themselves  are  given  a  home.  Officials  are  paid  by  the 
authorities  to  look  after  the  imnates.  and  a  physician  is 
provided  if  they  are  ill.     In  return  the  inmates  are  expected 


176  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

to  work  if  they  are  able,  a  part  of  the  day  at  least.  It  is 
said  on  good  authority  that  more  than  half  of  those  in  alms- 
houses are  able  to  work,  but  do  not,  as  they  are  not  willing 
to  work  when  support  is  to  be  had  for  nothing.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  alms-house,  many  counties  maintain  a  hospital 
for  those  suffering  from  tuberculosis.  Here  those  who  have 
contracted  this  disease  are  maintained  at  the  expense  of  the 
public  until  they  are  restored  to  health  and  once  more  be- 
come self-supporting.  Such  institutions  are  also  maintained 
in  some  of  the  states  l)y  state  funds. 

Relief  of  poor  children.  —  The  great  English  novelist, 
Charles  Dickens,  said,  "  Throw  a  child  under  a  cart  horse's 
foot  and  a  loaded  wagon,  rather  than  take  him  to  an  alms- 
house." Such  a  statement  was  all  too  well  founded  in 
Dickens'  day.  Little  children  were  forced  to  associate  with 
tlie  insane  and  degenerate,  and  the  disgrace  which  inevitably 
clings  to  such  a  place  was  theirs.  The  whole  influence  of  the 
place  was  low  and  degrading.  Fortunately,  at  the  present 
time,  the  placing  of  children  in  an  alms-house  is  forbid- 
den in  most  states  by  law.  Many  communities  maintain 
asylums  for  orphans  and  other  dependent  children.  A  bet- 
ter method  recognizes  that  the  home  is  the  only  place  for  a 
child.  Homesaresought  out  for  unfortunate  children.  After 
these  homes  have  been  carefully  investigated,  chiklren  from 
the  different  asylums  are  sent  to  be  taken  care  of  and  brought 
up  as  members  of  the  family.  The  homes  in  which  the 
children  are  placed,  are  under  the  supervision  and  watch- 
fulness of  the  authorities  until  such  a  time  as  it  is  known 
that  the  children  will  be  well  brought  up. 

Care  such  as  is  now  given  dependent  children,  either  in 
an  asylum  or  a  home,  is  necessary  for  two  reasons ;  one  for 
the  sake  of  the  community,  and  the  other  for  the  sake  of  the 


THE    NEEDY    AND    DKPKXDEXT 


17 


child.  Such  care  is  necessary  because  it  takes  the  eliild  from 
tlie  e\il  inlluences  of  the  street,  which  woulil  he  iihii()>t  sure 
to  uiake  a  criminal  of  him  and  therehtre  a  menace  to  the 
conununity.  It  also  jjives  the  child  a  chance  for  |)r()t«'ction 
and  ail  t-ihication,  a  chance  to  tjrow  nj)  a  nset'iil  citizen  and 
to  earn  his  li\in,<i'. 

Medical  charity. — Thert'  is  one  class  of  the  need\    who 
should  have  all  the  care  the  conununit\'  can  i^ixc,  that  is,  the 


fntirlt--!/  nf  li III', If. hint  ll'ii/inr 

The  Work  of  the  Rkd  (hoss  in  Tka)  k 
Toarhing  home  nursiiiK  find  infant  euro. 

sick  poor.  In  addition  to  all  the  work  which  the  com- 
munity and  its  societies  do  for  the  iiccdx ,  the  local  com- 
munity usually  maintains  a  doctor  for  the  sick,  and  some- 
times a  nurse  to  take  care  of  them.  The  doctor  resjjonds 
to  the  calls  which  are  made  on  him,  jrives  the  needed  medicine, 
and  sends  the  sick  to  the  free  ward  in  the  iio-^pital  if  necessary. 
Most  of  the  larger  communities  maintain  a  hospital  where 
there  are  free  beds  for  those  who  camu.t  pa\ .     Those  who 


178 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


live  in  cities  are  familiar  with  the  sound  of  the  clanging  bell 
of  the  ambulance,  hurrying  on  its  way  of  mercy. 

The  Red  Cross.  —  One  of  the  greatest  associations  formed 
for  the  help  of  the  needy  is  the  Red  Cross  Society.  Its  great 
use  was  seen  during  the  period  of  the  Great  War  with  Ger- 
many.    The  world  was  then  a  great  community.     Every 


Unite d  Stales  Official  Photo 

Red  Cross  Workers  on  the  Job 
Red  Cross  men  attending  to  the  wounded  during  the  World  War. 


one  helped  his  neighbor  among  other  nations.  There  was 
hardly  a  home  which  did  not  display'  a  Red  Cross  in  the 
window,  as  evidence  of  giving  to  help  the  suffering  of  the 
allied  nations.  Organized  originally  to  give  relief  caused  by 
sudden  needs,  fires,  floods,  or  earthquakes,  its  great  work 
during  the  war  taught  what  organized  relief  really  might  be. 


THE   NEEDY   AND   DEPENDENT  1 7<) 

State  institutions.  —  The  state  provides  hospitals  and 
asylums  for  some  dependent  members  of  the  coiimmnity. 
This  is  necessary  as  the  cost  would  he  too  great  if  a  local 
community  alone  was  forced  to  give  these  unfortunates 
proper  care.  In  these  institutions  are  placed  the  hiind, 
the  deaf-mutes,  the  insane,  and  the  mentally  deficient.  The 
insane,  like  dependent  children,  are  taken  care  of  not  only 
for  their  own  sake,  but  so  that  they  may  not  be  a  menace  to 
the  locality  where  they  live.  Formerly  the  insane  were 
treated  harshly,  and  "  cruel  and  barbarous  methods  pre- 
vailed in  the  treatment  of  the  poor  unfortunate  iimiates. 
They  were  often  thrust  into  dark  and  prison-like  cells,  or 
kept  in  cages  like  wild  animals.  They  were  often  comjjelled 
to  live  in  great  filth,  .  .  .  and  often  weighted  down  with 
great  chains."  ^Yith  such  treatment  there  was  no  chance 
for  the  recovery  of  either  mind  or  body.  As  a  result  of  the 
modern  scientific  treatment  of  the  insane,  one  half  ()f 
those  sent  to  the  hospitals  are  either  cured  or  so  improved 
that  they  may  be  returned  to  their  homes  without  being  a 
menace  to  others. 

The  mentally  defective  are  now  taken  care  of  in  institu- 
tions. Probably  one  half  of  the  people  in  the  various  alms- 
houses are  feeble-minded  ;  twenty  per  cent  to  fifty  per  cent  of 
criminals  are  mentally  defective ;  in  the  reformatories  sixty 
to  eighty  per  cent  are  in  the  same  condition.  If  these  un- 
fortunates could  have  had  proper  care,  crime  and  pauperism 
would  be  much  reduced.  It  has  been  suggested  that  those 
now  in  our  jails,  alms-houses,  reformatories,  etc.,  be  sub- 
jected to  scientific  tests,  and  that  when  such  inmates  are 
found  to  be  defective,  they  be  placed  in  institutions  where 
they  may  receive  care  rather  than  punishment. 

The  blind  and  the  deaf-mutes  are  made  the  wards  (.f  the 


180 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


state.  By  the  use  of  ingenious  apparatus  they  are  taught 
to  do  many  seemingly  impossible  things.  The  blind  are 
taught  to  read  by  touch  and  are  taught  to  follow  many 
trades  and  professions,  —  weaving,  piano  tuning,  type- 
writing. Helen  Keller,  blind,  deaf,  and  dumb  from  birth, 
has  been  enabled  to  receive  a  college  education.     Those 


'■'Mi 

y 

^/^^-"^^jB 

&iJLinPDil^ 

i^^HBBhV  m  ^.^.^  iWamMi       'Irisa 

^^^^^H^^u^        -"^cmm/-    ^^^^^M 

HMHjd 

H^^l 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^P^^^^^^Pr. 

~^  i--  '^"sji^^^l 

hhb 

^^^^^St^^^' 

/ 

Group  of  Homes  Provided  by  the  State  for  Dependents 

The  new  way  of  building  :i  home  for  those  who  need  care  is  to  construct 
a  group  of  separate  buildings  rather  than  one  large  one.  This  makes  the 
care  more  homelike. 


who  came  back  from  the  World  War,  seemingly  useless  from 
bhndness  or  wounds,  in  many  instances  have  been  taught 
to  be  self-supporting. 

State  laws.  —  Some  of  the  states  have  passed  laws 
affecting  the  whole  commonwealth,  that  are  expected  to 
do  away  with  a  great  deal  of  charity.  These  laws  have 
already  been  mentioned, — the  workman's  compensation  act. 


THE    XEEDY    A\n    DEPEXDKN'T  1^1 

the  widow's  lu'iisioii  ;ict,  the  niiiiiiiiiiin  wa'^c  law,  aiitl 
otlitT  such  acts.  These  reheve  to  a  ijreat  extent  iiiaii> 
cases  to  which  lielp  would  ha\ c  to  he  ui\cii  when  the  chief 
hrciid-wiiiner  has  died  or  is  ilL  Hy  the  rehel'  allorded  hy  the 
state,  the  chihh-en  may  \n-  kept  in  the  home  ami  the  parents 
relieved  of  worry. 

Cost  of  charities.  —  The  care  of  tlie  poor  and  nnfortimate 
costs  the  diti'ereiit  comiiuinities  of  the  nation  more  than 
anythiiif,^  else,  the  cost  of  war  alone  exce|)te(i.  It  has  heeii 
estimated  that  one  twenty-fifth  of  the  whole  po|)iijation 
of  the  nation  is  dependent  on  charity.  In  one's  own  com- 
munity there  may  not  be  many  w!io  need  help  from  s(»me  one 
else,  but  in  the  ajjcre^ate  throu^dHuit  the  coimtry.  the  num- 
ber reaches  millions.  "  In  the  story  of  (iulliver's  travels, 
it  was  not  any  one  of  tlie  fine  threads  which  lieM  him  to  earth, 
but  the  millions  of  strands  which  the  busy  little  men  carried 
over  his  liody  in  every  direction."  It  costs  the  nation  nearl\- 
$200,000,000  per  year  to  pay  for  the  support  of  the  needy. 
This  means  that  a  suin  equal  to  one  cent  out  (»f  e\-ery  ten 
of  the  total  amount  of  waj^es  paid  out  by  all  the  mauufactiu-- 
ing  industries  of  the  country,  must  be  paid  to  stipport  some 
one  else.  It  is  very  e^•ident.  tlien,  that  \\  hati\  cr  can  be  done 
to  restore  these  hel])less  ones  to  self-su])|)ort,  or  better  yet.  to 
keep  people  from  needing  help,  is  a  fine  thing  for  the  nation. 

These  figures  do  not  mean,  as  we  iiave  .said,  that  all  the 
people  who  receive  this  aid  are  at  faidt,  any  more  than  .\<>u 
were  at  fault  when  you  received  help  from  your  people  when 
you  were  helpless.  Those  who  are  sick  usually  cannot  iielj) 
it.  Those  who  tneet  with  an  accident  are  not  always  at 
fault;  though  we  have  seen  that  the  warning  of  "Safety 
First"  has  been  the  cause  of  a  great  reduction  in  the  munber 
of  accidents  caused  by  carelessness. 


182  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

Questions  for  Investigation 

1.  What  does  your  community  do  to  take  care  of  the  poor  and  needy  ? 
What  officials  are  there  who  attend  to  this  duty  ?  How  are  they  chosen  ? 
What  are  their  duties? 

2.  What  societies  are  there  in  your  community  wliich  help  those  who 
need  assistance?  How  does  a  needy  person  go  about  obtaining 
assistance  ? 

3.  What  does  your  community  do  to  abate  the  "tramp"  nuisance? 
Do  you  ever  feed  them  ?     Is  this  a  good  thing  to  do  ?     Why  ? 

4.  Make  a  list  of  the  charitable  institutions  of  your  local  and  state 
governments.     Draw  some  conclusions  from  this  list. 

5.  How  are  the  different  charities  supported,  mentioned  in  question  4  ? 

6.  What  benefits  does  a  community  receive  from  the  different 
organized  charities  ? 

7.  What  are  some  of  the  results  to  yourself  of  being  charitable  ? 

8.  Does  an  increase  in  wages  prevent  poverty?     Why? 

9.  How  may  charity  work  an  injury  to  a  community? 

10.  What  public  institutions  are  there  in  your  state  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  helping  those  who  are  defective  ? 

11.  Write  a  composition  on  "The  Life  of  Helen  Keller." 

12.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the  work  the  United  States  govern- 
ment does  for  those  who  became  dependent  because  of  woimds  received 
during  the  war  against  Germany.     Make  a  report  to  the  class. 


I 


CHAPTER    XII 

GOVERNMENT  AND   MAKING  A  LIVING 

Land 

The  ferryman,  the  blacksmith,  and  tin-  miller  cif  wlioiii 
we  have  read  were  working  to  make  a  living.  That  is  the 
goal  toward  which  most  people  are  striving.  Some  wish 
to  get  rich,  some  are  satisfied  to  have  a  modest  sum  to  take 
care  of  them  in  their  old  age,  while  others  may  he  fortunate 
enough  to  have  had  parents  who  have  provided  .so  well  for 
them  that  all  they  have  to  do  is  to  take  care  of  what  has 
been  left  them.  We  say  "  Mr.  So-and-so  is  wealthy."  We 
mean  that  he  has  plenty  of  money  and  whatexcr  money 
can  buy.  In  our  study  of  govermnent,  however,  we  nnist 
broaden  our  ideas  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  word  "  wealth." 
It  has  been  defined  as  "  merely  the  material  means  by  wliieh 
the  real  elements  of  welfare  are  secured."  In  other  wdrds 
"  making  a  living  "  does  not  merely  mean  hoarding  up  a 
great  quantity  of  money  or  stocks  and  bonds,  but  means  the 
securing  of  enough  wealth  or  goods  <o  that  all  the.se  things 
which  government  helps  to  proxide  for  us  may  be  obtained 
—  a  home,  health,  a  i)eautiful  citN',  j)roteetion.  education,  or 
any  of  the  other  things  we  desire  which  gctvennnent  may 
give. 

What  wealth  is.  —  Wealth  may  be  represented  In  money 
or  by  something  else.  The  wealth  of  the  ferryman  was  liis 
boat,   for  by  it    he  gained    the   clcInellt-^  of    welfare  for  the 

183 


184  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

support  of  his  family.  The  wealth  of  the  miller  was  his  mill 
and  the  toll  of  the  grain  which  he  took.  The  wealth  of  the 
shoemaker  was  his  tools.  Our  idea  of  wealth  and  that  of 
the  boy  on  the  farm  may  be  entirely  different,  and  yet  both 
may  have  the  right  idea  of  what  wealth  is.  He  may  desire 
to  have  his  wealth  in  a  hundred-acre  farm  and  big  barns  to 
hold  the  products  which  he  raises,  both  of  which  will  bring 
him  all  those  things  that  he  desires.  You  may  desire  a  vast 
business  which  will  bring  in  so  great  an  income  that  you  will 
have  automobiles,  servants,  a  grand  house,  and  all  the  e\\- 
dences  of  wealth  which  money  may  bring.  So  we  see  that 
wealth  may  mean  a  different  thing  to  each  person,  and  yet 
"  making  a  living  "  is  only  working  to  gain  those  things 
we  most  desire. 

Elements  of  wealth.  —  Into  this  making  of  a  living  or 
acquiring  wealth  enter  three  fundamental  things:  first, 
natural  resources,  that  is  those  things  which  nature  itself 
gives  us;  next,  labor,  the  work  we  do  with  either  our 
brains  or  our  bodies;  finally,  capital,  or  anything  that  labor 
has  made  to  produce  more  goods.  We  must  understand  that 
in  speaking  of  capital  we  do  not  necessarily  mean  money,  in 
fact  we  do  not  mean  money  as  often  as  we  mean  something 
else.  Oil  and  steel,  which  are  forms  of  natural  resources, 
when  combined  in  the  form  of  an  automobile  truck  are  a 
form  of  capital.  They  are  the  products  of  labor  that  are 
used  to  create  more  goods.  You  may  be  a  capitalist,  for  if 
you  own  the  mower  with  which  you  mow  a  neighbor's  lawn 
for  pay,  your  lawn  mower  is  your  capital.  Let  us  take 
each  of  these  three  elements  of  wealth  and  see  how  closely 
government  is  connected  with  each. 

Natural  resources.  —  By  natural  resources  we  mean  all  the 
things  which  the  earth  itself  gives  us,  —coal,  oil,  gold,  silver, 


r.OVKRXMKNT    AXI)    MAKlXd    A    MVI\(.         ^  S.') 

and  tlic  other  metals  dug  from  the  ciirtli.  \\C  ;il-n  iikjui  the 
fertility  of  the  soil,  the  movement  of  tlic  air  ahovc  the  ciirtli. 
the  Howiii,^;  of  the  waters  on  the  earth  in  the  form  of  l)ro(»ks. 
rivers,  rain,  and  snow.  All  these  tliini^s  are  i:i\cn  to  n>  for 
our  use,  and  hy  ecHuhininjj;  them  with  the  other  two  factors  (»f 
wealth,  labor  and  eapital,  we  make  our  li\  in^^ 

When  the  nation  was  younj,'  all  the  natural  rexnu-ces 
were  free  to  the  one  who  eould  use  theui  hot.  The  earl> 
settlers  received  large  grants  of  laud  for  small  sums,  and  as 
the  value  of  the  natural  resources  of  the  land  was  not 
known,  many  received  \-ery  xalualilc  grants  for  >uiall 
sums.  But  as  time  went  on,  and  some  of  these  resources 
began  to  be  used  up  and  i)eople  selfishly  took  more  than 
they  should,  government  had  to  sti-])  in  and  regulate  their 
use.  As  the  population  increasetl,  the  amount  of  fertile  soil 
for  the  use  of  each  person  decreased,  the  amount  of  water 
power  available  for  use  was  less.  Many  of  the  mines  of 
coal,  iron,  and  coj)])er  and  other  minerals  fell  into  the  hands 
of  unscrui)ulous  individuals  who  exacted  high  i)rices  for 
their  products.  The  people  in  general  were  being  shut  (tut 
of  proper  participation  in  the  use  of  tlii'se  natural  resource's. 
The  wiser  men  of  the  nation  began  to  see  that  it  would  not 
be  long  before  many  of  these  would  be  entirely  destroye»l. 
For  this  reason,  in  recent  years  go\ermnent  has  begun  to 
take  control  of  many  of  the  natural  re>ource>  ot  the  coun- 
try. Indeed,  during  the  war  with  Ciermany.  some  of  them 
were  taken  over  entirely  by  the  government. 

Lumber. — One  of  our  most  carelessly  u^e(l  resources  is 
lumber.  To  the  early  settler  if  did  not  ncciu  po--il.|c  t(» 
destroy  the  vast  forests  whi<'h  he  found  her«'.  lli^  desire 
was  to  carve  for  himself  a  home  in  the  heart  of  this  va-t 
wilderness,  and  to  do  this  he  was  forced  to  cut   down  the 


186  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

trees  and  burn  them.  The  only  use  he  had  for  them  was  to 
build  his  home  and  to  make  his  fire.  The  ashes  that  he  ob- 
tained from  the  many  trees  he  had  to  clear  away,  he  used  for 
fertilizing  his  crops.  For  a  long  time  this  wasteful  method 
of  using  timber  was  continued.  No  thought  was  taken  for 
the  future.  Many  private  individuals  obtained  control 
of  vast  tracts  of  timber  land,  which  they  cut  over  in  waste- 
ful fashion.  Modern  times  brought  but  little  change  in 
these  wasteful  methods.  Fires  started  in  the  slashings  and 
burned  over  vast  areas  of  valuable  timber.  From  1880  to 
1896  the  annual  fire  loss  was  $50,000,000,  and  the  cost  of 
setting  out  trees  to  take  the  place  of  those  destroyed  was 
$50,000,000  more.  Added  to  this  was  a  yearly  loss  of  fifty 
lives.  The  men  who  owned  the  large  tracts  were  anxious 
only  to  make  all  the  money  they  could  from  their  grants, 
and  so  cut  them  over  recklessly.  An  example  of  the  wasteful 
destruction  of  valuable  trees  was  shown  during  the  Great 
War.  There  arose  a  demand  for  black  walnut  for  the  stocks 
of  the  soldiers'  rifles.  So  small  was  the  supply,  that  Presi- 
dent Wilson  issued  a  call  to  the  Boy  Scouts  of  America  to 
go  into  the  woods  and  search  for  black  walnut  trees  that  there 
might  be  a  supply  of  the  needed  wood  to  meet  the  demand. 
As  a  result  of  our  careless  handling,  our  timber  lands  are 
only  about  sixty-five  per  cent  of  what  they  formerly  were. 
Only  about  one-fourth  of  our  area  is  forested. 

Saving  of  lumber.  —  Since  1891,  when  the  first  of  the 
forest  laws  were  passed,  the  nation  has  attempted  to  save 
the  forests.  In  that  year  the  president  was  given  authority 
to  set  aside  any  public  lands  bearing  forests,  as  forest  re- 
serves. In  1897  a  National  Bureau  of  Forestry  was  estab- 
lished (see  Chapter  XXI),  and  now  a  national  force  of  four 
thousand  men  patrols  these  forests.    From  lofty  watch  towers 


GOVERNMENT   AND    MAKING    A    IJVINC  1 S? 


Two  ViKws  UK  What  Carelessness  Does  to  Ouii  Forests 


188 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


these  men  watch  for  fires  and 
suiiiinon  help  if  need  arises. 
They  \n\  out  new  trails  through 
the  forests,  ])ut  up  telephone 
Hues  so  that  communication  may 
be  swift  if  necessary,  and  drive 
out  illegal  users  of  forest  lands. 

Not  only  does  the  Forestry 
Bureau  manage  our  forests  care- 
fully, but  it  is  trying  to  stop 
wasteful  methods  of  production. 
Trees  are  cut  so  wastefully,  that 
the  loss  is  nearly  twenty-five  per 
cent.  ]\Iills  waste  about  fifty 
per  cent  of  the  logs  they  cut. 
"  It  is  estimated  that  37,000,000 
gallons  of  turpentine,  or  more 
than  at  present  produced  in  the 
I'liited  States,  might  be  pro- 
duced from  the  waste  parts  of 
the  southern  pine,  the  stumps, 
the  slabs,  and  the  sawdust." 
The  Bureau  is  trying  to  teach 
the  lumbermen  less  wasteful 
methods  of  production. 

State  control  of  forests.  — 
]\Iany  of  the  states  have  at- 
tempted to  control  the  waste 
of  timber  within  their  borders. 


'      ;  /,    „  of  Forest  Service, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

A  Fire  Lookout  Tower  in  a 
Florida  National  Forest 

Unnle  Sam  has  made  some  of 
the  public  lands  in  Florida  into 
national  forests,  and  one  of  the 
duties  of  the  Forest  Service 
which  administers  them,    is  to 

protect  the  timber  from  fire.  These  lookout  towers  are  connected  by  tele- 
phone with  the  supervisors'  and  rangers'  headquarters,  and  when  smoke  is 
discovered,  very  little  time  is  lost  in  getting  a  fire  fighting  crew  to  the  scene. 


(lOVKKXMKXT    AM)    MAKIXC    A     IJVINC  |S!) 

New  York,  ainoiifi-otlu'rs,  lias  cstahlislicd  aScliool  of  |'"nrcstr\ 
where  scientific  forestry  is  studied.  Such  a  school  ^mvcs  a 
chance  for  any  hoy  who  likes  life  in  the  open  to  (iitcr  ujxmi  a 
profession  which  is  not  overcrowdi-d.  I-'or  many  reas(Mis. 
however,  it  is  thouijht  hetter  for  the  national  j;overninent 
rather  than  the  state  to  control  the  forest  lauds.  One  cliicr 
reason  is  that  forests  do  not  stop  at  state  lines,  'riuv 
affect  the  prosperity  of  all  the  country  and  not  alone  the 
])e()ple  of  one  state. 

Water. — The  preservation  of  the  forests  is  neces.sarv 
for  the  control  of  the  water  supply.  Tlic  reckless  destruc- 
tion of  timber  on  the  mountain  sloj)es  no  lonu'cr  leaves  anv- 
thing  to  hohl  back  the  water,  and  as  a  result  tiu-  >Iop(>  mic 
denuded  of  their  soil  and  the  valleys  are  flooded.  l\>rnu'rl\- 
the  trees,  by  their  roots  and  foliage,  held  back  a  great  (pian- 
tity  of  water  and  allowed  it  to  run  oil' slowly,  and  the  water 
supply  was  sent  slowly  down  to  the  lowlands.  The  Hoods 
of  to-day  are  caused  by  the  sudden  thawing  of  the  snow  on 
the  mountain  slopes  and  the  heavy  rains  wliieh  rush  down 
into  the  valleys  in  torrents.  To  remedy  this  trouble,  and  to 
insure  a  steady  and  constant  suj)ply  of  water,  n-forestation 
of  the  mountain  sl()j)es  has  been  undertaken  by  the  state 
and  national  go\ernments.  Millions  of  trees  lia\c  i»een  si't 
out  to  replace  those  which  have  been  cut  down  by  careless 
and  unscrupulous  woodsmen.  The  state  of  New  ^'ork,  for 
example,  expends  many  thousands  of  dollars  each  year  to 
maintain  nurseries  for  the  raising  of  young  trees  for  the 
purpose  of  reforestation. 

Water  power.  —  We  Iuia'c  seen  in  the  cliaitter  on  lleallh 
(see  Chapter  ]\)  how  necessar\'  to  the  health  of  the  people 
is  a  supply  of  pure  water.  \'ery  important  also  i>  the 
preservation  to  the  people  of  water  j)ower  as  a  cheap  means 


190  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

of  power  for  manufacturing  and  other  purposes.  At  the 
present  time  we  are  using  six  million  horse  power  derived 
from  our  streams,  but  there  is  nearly  ten  times  that  amount 
which  might  be  used.  The  control  of  most  of  the  power 
now  in  use  is  in  the  hands  of  only  ten  companies.  It  is 
thus  easily  seen  why  it  is  necessary  for  the  government  to 
preserve  the  power  remaining,  so  that  it  may  not  come  under 
the  control  of  a  few  people  who  might  abuse  their  power. 
Government  control  of  these  utilities  is  necessary  to  secure 
reasonable  charges  from  the  great  combinations  of  capital 
now  controlling  the  water  power  sites,  for  at  the  present  time 
they  are  able  to  charge  unreasonable  rates. 

Government  and  state  water  control.  —  Another  method 
of  control  of  water  undertaken  by  the  government  is  the 
making  of  large  storage  reservoirs,  where  water  may  be 
stored  and  used  as  needed  to  irrigate  land  otherwise  unpro- 
ductive. An  example  of  the  difficulties  attending  the  con- 
struction of  these  projects,  the  stor}'  of  the  building  of  the 
Uncompahgre  project,  is  found  in  the  chapter  on  "  The 
President's  Advisers."  (The  Secretary  of  the  Interior.) 
Another  great  undertaking  was  the  building  of  the  Roose- 
velt dam.  This  great  structure  is  280  feet  high,  630  feet 
wide,  and  forms  a  reservoir  25  miles  long.  Its  waters 
have  reclaimed  160,000  acres  of  arid  land.  The  Arrowrock 
dam  is  still  larger  than  the  Roosevelt  dam,  being  348  feet 
high. 

When  we  realize  that  two-fifths  of  the  area  of  the  United 
States  has  so  little  rainfall  that  irrigation  is  necessary  for 
successful  crops,  the  value  of  the  work  mentioned  above  is 
readily  understood.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  work,  in 
1894,  nearly  a  million  and  a  half  acres  have  been  made  pro- 
ductive ill  this  way.     Practically  worthless  lands  in  many 


COVEHX.MKNT    AND    MAKINC    A     IJVINC  P.H 

western  states  ha\'e  been  clKiii^cd  into  htiintit'iil  onlinnls 
worth  SI 000  an  acre. 

Navigation.  —  Much  of  tlie  nation's  money  has  heen 
wasted  in  trying  to  make  the  rivers  and  streams  of  the  country 
navigable.  One  of  the  greatest  scanchils  of  the  g(.\«rii- 
ment  is  the  "  Rivers  and  Harbors  "  l)ill,  the  so-called 
"  pork  barrel,"  by  which  appropriations  are  made  by  ( "origress 
for  the  purpose  of  dredging  and  otherwise  makitig  navigable 
the  streams  of  the  country.  Many  of  them  were  of  no  use 
except  to  a  very  small  locality  and  sometimes  were  of  ab.so- 
lutely  no  use  even  when  dredged.  There  are,  liowever, 
nearly  three  hundred  navigable  streams  for  which  the  i^i^v- 
ernment  appropriates  money.  The  floods  each  year  l)ring 
down  immense  quantities  of  silt,  which  gradually  makes 
such  streams  of  no  use  unless  they  are  cleane(|  dut.  The 
national  government  is  also  making  a  series  of  na\  igable 
canals  near  the  coast,  from  Maine  to  Morida,  which  will 
permit  ocean  traffic  without  danger  from  ocean  >torms. 
Some  of  these  canals,  and  also  the  Harge  Canal  in  New 
York  State,  were  taken  under  government  control  during  the 
World  War  to  facilitate  the  transj)ortation  of  goo<ls.  This 
helped  to  relieve  the  great  congestion  of  the  railroatl>.  The 
building  of  the  Panama  (/anal  was  another  of  the  goxcrninent 
projects  to  help  navigation,  and  also  the  canali/ing  of  the 
Columbia  River  for  oOO  miles  of  its  length. 

Minerals.  —  Among  the  many  diflicult  |)roblems  which 
the  government  faced  during  the  war  with  (Germany,  none 
was  more  difficult  than  those  connected  with  minerals, 
particularly  coal.  The  great  congestion  (tf  freight  trafUc. 
the  exceptionally  cold  weather,  the  diflTiculty  of  getting  cars 
to  carry  the  coal,  made  it  almost  impossible  to  ship  this  very 
necessary  product.     Finally  the   government    appointt-d   a 


192 


COMMUNITY    CIVICS 


fuel  administrator  and  took  over  the  coal  mines,  distribut- 
ing coal  to  the  different  parts  of  the  country  as  it  was  needed. 
Such  businesses  as  were  not  actually  in  need  of  coal  were 
refused  it,  and  many  others  were  allowed  only  a  certain  per 
cent  of  the  amount  formerly  used.  The  price  of  coal  was 
also  kept  within  a  reasonable  limit.  The  prices  of  other 
mineral  sup])lies  were  fixed  so  that  the  government  might 
have  them  for  war  uses  without  paying  extraxagaut  rates. 


( ■ijurlisi/  iij  /■■(/lis/  StiiU 

A  Herd  of  Buffalo  in  a  National  Park 
Conservation  of  wild  life  by  national  government. 


Loyal  mine  owners  gladly  accepted  the  prices  so  fixed,  and 
the  government  was  saved  many  thousands  of  dollars.  Some 
years  previous  to  the  war,  the  President  acting  under  the 
authority  given  him  by  Congress,  set  aside  many  acres  of 
coal  and  oil  lands,  thus  reserving  to  the  people  these  valu- 
able supplies  of  fuel. 

Animal  life.  —  State  and  nation  are  now  trying  to  con- 
serve our  wild  animals  as  one  of  our  natural  resources.  It 
has  begun  this  work  almost  too  late  as  some  of  our  wild  ani- 
mals have  been  almost  entircK  (U'stroved.     The  buffalo  has 


GOVERNMENT    AND    MAKIXC    A     LI  V  INC  I'.i:] 

gone,  except  for  a  few  individuals  here  and  there.  W  ln-ii 
the  West  was  first  exj)lored  and  settled,  these  animals  roaiiied 
the  prairies  in  countless  nuiltitudes.  So  ruthle^>Iy  were 
they  slaughtered  for  their  hides  tiuit  it  was  not  lonu  hel'ore 


Ring-Necki:»  Phkasant.s 

These   game    birds   have    lieen    introduced   into   America    iliroiiKli    their 
propasation  at  a  game  farm  inaiiitaiiied  hy  New  Vcirk  slat*'  at  Shcrhuriie. 


the  great  herds  were  almost  destro\ed.  The  wild  pigeon 
is  seldom  found  in  this  country,  although  the  early  reconls 
tell  of  such  vast  flocks  that  the  sun  was  actually  darkened 
as  they  flew  to  their  nesting  places.  If  it  had  not  heen  for 
government  propagation  the  oyster  and  the  loh-ter  would 
have  disappeared  in  the  same  way.     Both  the  >tates  and  the 


194 


COMMUNITY   CIVK^S 


nation  have  passed  laws  to  stop  such  Indiscriminate  slaughter. 
A  closed  season  for  wild  animals  is  now  established  by  law 
in  most  states.  Not  only  do  the  states  forbid  the  killino; 
of  wild  animals,  except  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  but 
many  of  them  maintain  farms  where  the  game  birds  and 


Courtesy  of  Forest  Service,  Wa-sliington.  1).  (' 
Wild  Turkeys  on  a  National  Preserve 
Preservation  of  wild  life  by  state  and  nation. 

fish  are  hatched,  and  from  which  they  are  distributed 
throughout  the  state.  The  national  government  forbids  the 
killing  of  wild  animals  in  certain  of  the  national  parks,  has 
taken  over  the  control  of  the  great  seal  herds,  which  were  in 
danger  of  extinction,  and  maintains  a  great  breeding  place 
for  wild  birds. 


I 


,govp:rxmfa't  and  makixc  a  \a\\\(\       p.i.i 


QUESTION'S    I-OR   lNVESTl(;.\rr<).\ 

1.  Are  you  wealthy  :'     Of  what  does  your  \v.;ihli  ((.nsist  'f 

2.  What  natural  resourees  did  your  coniunmity  i)<)>sess  w  hir-li  |c«l  to 
its  settlement':'  What  natural  resources  still  e(jntril)ut«-  to  its  jjros- 
perity  ? 

3.  Does  fjovernuient  in  any  foriu.  local,  state,  or  national.  rcKulate 
the  natural  resources  of  your  community  at  the  jjresent  tinu-  'f 

4.  Are  there  mills  in  your  commimity  which  use  lumher?  Do  tliev 
waste  it  in  any  way?  From  what  sources  do  they  pet  their  s\ii)i)ly  of 
lumber? 

5.  Are  there  any  factories  in  your  vicim'ty  which  make  use  of  i he- 
waste  of  other  forms  of  industry? 

6.  Trace  a  redwood  tree  from  its  location  in  the  forot  to  ii>  final 
use.     A  mahofiany  tree.     A  cypress  tree. 

7.  What  laws  has  your  state  made  for  the  iirotcction  of  your  forests 
against  fire?  Are  there  forest  rangers  near  your  home?  What  are 
their  duties? 

8.  What  department  of  the  national  govcrmncnt  has  charge  of  our 
national  forests?  What  is  the  name  of  its  .S'crctary  ?  What  are  some 
of  his  duties  ? 

9.  What  is  meant  by  a  "hydro-electric"  l.iw":'  Ihis  xour  ^tate 
such  a  law?  What  are  the  advantages  of  >uch  a  law?  Disail- 
vantages  ? 

10.  Is  any  of  your  land  under  irrigation?  Where  docs  the  water 
come  from  ?  Is  the  water  supjilied  by  a  private  firm  or  by  the  govern- 
ment? Do  you  think  it  better  for  the  government  or  a  corjioration  to 
control  such  a  supply  of  water  ?     Why  ? 

11.  What  has  government  done  in  your  locality  to  help  navigation? 
Are  there  any  government  projects  under  way  or  completed  near  your 
commimity  which  are  an  aid  to  navigation?  If  there  are,  make  a 
report  on  them  to  the  class. 

12.  What  department  of  the  national  government  has  charge  of  the 
deepening  of  rivers?     What  are  some  of  its  duties? 

13.  Make  a  report  to  the  class  on  government  r-ontrol  of  any  minerals 
in  your  section. 

14.  Draw  a  map  of  the  United  States  and  hxate  any  coal  or  nil 
lands  set  aside  by  the  government. 

15.  Draw  a  map  of  the  United  States  and  on  it  liK-ate  the  chief 
mineral  supplies  of  the  country;  the  lumber  regions;  the  great  n-^T- 
voirs  built  by  the  government. 


19G  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

IC).  lias  your  state  any  officials  whose  business  it  is  to  take  care  of 
the  forests?  To  protect  the  wild  animals  and  see  that  they  are  not 
killed  out  of  season  ? 

17.  Has  your  state  any  laws  which  protect  the  birds?  If  so,  find 
out  some  of  the  provisions  of  such  laws.  How  many  kinds  of  birds 
near  your  home  ?     Of  what  use  are  they  ? 

18.  How  can  the  pupils  of  your  school  help  the  community  to  have 
pure  food?  What  is  being  done  in  your  neighborhood  to  increase  the 
production  of  food?  To  conserve  the  food  supply?  To  protect  the 
food  supply? 

19.  Are  there  vacant  lots  in  your  neighborhood  which  might  be  used 
for  gardens  ?  How  would  you  go  about  it  to  secure  their  use  ?  Make  a 
poster  urging  care  in  the  use  of  food. 

20.  If  you  live  in  the  country  write  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
of  your  state  or  tiie  federal  Department  of  Agriculture,  for  bulletins 
which  might  be  of  value  to  farmers  in  your  neighborhood. 


CITAI'TKP.    XIII 

GOVERNMENT   AND    MAKING   A   LIVING 

Labor 

The  second  element  that  enters  into  making  a  Hxinfj:  is 
labor,  either  j)hysical  labor  or  labor  with  the  brain.  When 
the  country  was  new,  men  had  to  do  all  kinds  of  labor.  The 
settler  had  to  cut  the  trees,  clear  the  land.  bnlM  lii^  lionse, 
put  in  his  crops,  kill  game  to  get  leather  I'or  his  clothing, 
shoe  his  horse  if  he  were  lucky  enough  to  ha\e  one,  make  a 
hand  mill  to  grind  his  corn;  in  short,  he  had  only  his  own 
efforts  and  those  of  his  familx' to  keep  liieni  t'roni  >iar\ation 
(see  Chapter  1).  His  wife  and  children  had  to  hel]) ;  the 
wife  spun  and  wove  the  yarn  into  thread  and  eloth  and  tiien 
made  the  cloth  into  garments  or  knit  the  yarn  into  stockings. 
She  had  to  make  the  soap,  make  the  maple  saj)  into  sugar, 
make  the  candles,  do  all  the  things  for  which  her  strength 
fitted  her.  The  parents  had  to  teach  the  children,  for  there 
was  not  much  opportunity  to  ol)tain  an  edncation.  and  they 
also  gave  them  what  religious  edncation  they  had.  particu- 
larly if  they  lived  far  from  the  settlements.  Kach  was  a 
real  "  jack-of-all-trades."  In  the  first  cha|)ter  we  saw  that 
after  a  while  the  miller  came,  and  the  blacksmith  and  the 
shoemaker.  Kach  took  some  of  the  burden  of  labor  from  the 
earlv  settler.  This  is  known  as  division  of  labor,  and  has 
become  the  great  factor  of  modern  labor  to-d;i> .  Hixision 
of  labor  destroyed  the  independence  of  the  faniil.\  and 
made  us  dependent  on  one  another. 

I'.iT 


198  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

Division  of  labor.  —  As  time  went  on  and  factories  were 
built  this  division  of  labor  became  more  noticeable.  One 
shoemaker  no  longer  made  a  shoe,  but  a  shoe  was  the  work  of 
a  great  many  hands.  Over  a  hundred  different  operations 
are  now  necessary  to  make  one  shoe.  Other  trades  show  the 
same  minuteness  of  division.  A  coat  is  no  longer  made  by 
one  person.  E\-en  a  pin  has  to  go  through  a  great  many 
processes  and  through  a  great  many  hands  before  it  is  ready 
for  use.  Such  a  division  of  labor  makes  man  dependent 
on  man.  We  are  dependent  to-day  on  the  efforts  of  many 
others.  If  a  strike  takes  place  in  a  machine  shop  where 
fittings  for  submarine  destroyers  are  made,  and  the  work  is 
slowed  up,  the  enemy  submarine  is  helped  and  the  country 
endangered.  If  the  miner  does  not  get  out  his  proper  amount 
of  coal  in  the  summer,  some  one  has  to  suffer  in  the  winter 
or  some  great  manufacturing  plant  has  to  close  dowTi.  If 
he  strikes,  he  throws  out  of  gear  the  machinery  of  many 
plants  dependent  upon  him  for  his  labor.  We  are  not 
interested  here  in  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the 
division  of  labor,  except  in  so  far  as  it  affects  our  relations 
with  other  members  of  the  community.  But  it  is  easy  to 
understand  that  if  each  does  not  do  his  share  in  the  labor  he 
has  undertaken,  some  one  else  suffers.  One  does  not  work 
for  himself  alone.  If  the  doctor  goes  away  for  his  enjoy- 
ment and  leaves  his  patients,  they  may  die.  If  the  farmer 
should  say  that  he  would  raise  only  such  crops  as  he  himself 
needed,  the  world  would  starve.  This  interdependence  of 
man  upon  man  is  at  the  bottom  of  much  of  our  law  making 
and  of  our  relation  to  the  government. 

As  has  been  said,  such  minute  division  of  labor  as  we  have 
to-day  came  about  through  the  establishment  of  what  we 
know  as  the  factorv   svstem.     About    the    middle    of  the 


I 


GOVERNMENT   AXD    MAKIXC.    A    LIV|\f;  \\)\) 

eighteenth  century,  because  of  several  inventions  m;i(lr  l.y 
some  EngHshmen,  hirge  buildings  for  the  spinning  and  weav- 
ing of  cloth  were  erected,  and  ik'()1)1c  no  longer  carried  on  this 
work  to  any  extent  in  their  homes.  This  system  was  intro- 
duced into  America  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, and  factories  sprang  up  in  all  parts  of  the  new  cr)nntry 
except  the  South,  where  slave  labor  did  not  make  the  system 
profitable.  These  factories  for  the  housing  of  lalxir  and 
machinery  brought  about  a  great  change  in  labor  condi- 
tions. Large  manufacturing  towns  sprang  up  with  all  the 
added  need  for  protection,  provision  for  health,  and  the  other 
elements  of  community  welfare.  ]\Ie:i,  urged  on  by  a  desire 
for  wealth,  began  to  hire  little  children  to  work  in  the  fac- 
tories because  they  were  to  be  had  at  a  cheap  wage.  Later 
on,  the  labor  of  women  was  used  for  the  reason  that  they 
could  be  hired  more  cheaply  than  men  and  would  not  fight 
for  their  rights  as  men  would.  The  same  bad  conditions 
which  England  had  faced,  soon  were  found  in  American  fac- 
tories, and,  sad  to  say,  all  child  labor  in  factories  has  not 
been  done  away  with  yet.  What  has  been  done  the  follow- 
ing sections  will  tell. 

Child  labor.  —  The  Child  Labor  Committee  which  was 
organized  in  1904  to  investigate  the  conditions  surrounding 
children  says  in  one  of  its  reports,  "  The  origin  of  child 
labor  grew  out  of  the  sordid  desire  of  employers  to  secure 
labor  at  the  lowest  possible  cost  regardless  of  the  law  or 
nature  of  man.  Certain  employers  seem  to  have  but  the 
one  policy,  anything  for  gain." 

Poverty  is  often  an  excuse  for  lazy  parents  to  j)nt  their 
children  at  work  so  that  they  will  be  tree  of  tlu'ir  support. 
Division  of  labor  has  made  it  possible  for  children  to  do  inan> 
things  in  factories  which  were  formerly  done  by  older  work- 


200 


COMMUNITY    CIVICS 


men.     Sometimes  children   become  discouraged   at    school 
and  want  to  go  to  work.     This  is  a  very  fooHsh  idea,  for  the 

uneducated  person 
does  not  have  much 
chance  of  success. 
Nevertheless,  many 
boys  and  girls  leave 
school  as  soon  as 
they  can  to  go  to 
work.  The  compul- 
sory education  laws 
and  their  enforce- 
ment are  inadequate 
in  many  states,  and 
many  children  leave 
school  when  they 
most  need  to  remain 
there. 

In  the  United 
States  to-day  there 
are  somewhat  less 
than  2,000,000  chil- 
dren who  are  classed 
as  laborers,  one  in 
seven  of  whom  is 
under  fourteen  years 
of  age.  About  three- 
fourths  of  these  work 
on  the  farms  while 
the  other  fourth  are  in  other  industries.  "  The  danger  in 
child  labor  is  often  not  recognized  because  of  the  large  pro- 
portion engaged  in  agriculture,  which  is  considered  one  of 


Cowtesv  of  National  Child  Labor  Committee 
Eight-Yeau-Old  Newsboys 

What  good  might  come  from  such  hibor? 
Do  you  think  the  good  is  greater  than  the 
evil  ari.sing  from  it?  Is  there  any  hiw  gov- 
erning sufh  oases? 


GOVEKXMKXT    AND    MAKINC    A     LININC         _'l)l 


-^/ 


the  more  he;iltlil'ul  occiii);iti«)Ms.  1  ndfi-  this  liciidiii^,  how- 
ever, are  the  chihh-en  found  workinji;  in  the  cnmherry  ho^s, 
in  the  berry  patches  and  ve<j:etahh'  <j:anh'ns.  and  also  in  the 
canneries.  Children  in  this  kind  of  work  often  lahor  undrr 
conditions  which  are 
worse  than  those  found 
in  the  factories." 

Does  child  labor  pay? 
Far  from  it.  Investi- 
gators have  proved  again 
and  again  that  the  family 
wage  is  not  increased  by 
it,  regardless  of  the  num- 
ber that  are  wage  earners. 
Where  the  women  and 
children  })ecome  wage 
earners,  the  whole  family 
earns  no  more  than  the 
father  would  earn,  wei-c 
prevailing  conditions 
such  that  he  was  the  only 
wage  earner  of  the  family. 
In  addition  to  this,  child 
labor  tends  invariably 
to  lower  the  wages  of 
older  peoi)le.  Aside  from  the  matter  of  dollars  and  cents, 
child  labor  does  not  pay  because  of  the  li\(>  it  rnin>.  The 
long  hours,  unsanitary  surroundings,  the  lack  (»f  fre^h  air 
and  simshine,  innnoral  comijanions.  all  tend  to  weaken  the 
children,  who,  if  they  are  fortiniate  eiioULrh  to  grow  u\), 
tend  to  become  old  before  their  time. 

Child  labor  does  not  pay  because  it  is  not  the  most  efficient 


Courtisy  of  Xtilinmtl  Child  l.iihor  lommillir 

Child  Lauok  on  thk  I-au.m 

Tlic  hoy  looks  happy,  but  the  wjirk  i.s 
\ory  hard  for  a  boy  of  twelve  >ear8. 
(  rates  of  tomatoes  are  tf)o  heavy  for 
cliildreii    to    carry. 


202  COMMUNITY    (MVICS 

kind  of  work.  Chiklren,  no  matter  how  skillful,  cannot  do 
as  good  work  as  older  people.  The  Child  Labor  Committee, 
before  referred  to,  sums  up  the  cost  of  child  labor  as  follows : 

1.  It  costs  the  child 

Accidents  and  disease, 
Lack  of  education, 
Material  and  spiritual  loss. 

2.  It  costs  industry 

Waste  of  products, 

Less  profit  in  the  long  run, 

Lower  efficiency  of  child  labor  adults. 

3.  It  costs  society 

Wrecked  human  beings, 
Broken  homes. 
Ignorant  citizens, 
Possible  criminality. 

All  of  the  states  have  taken  steps  to  put  a  stop  in  part, 
at  least,  to  child  labor,  but  jiot  many  of  them  really  enforce 
the  laws  they  have  made.  In  four  of  the  states,  Rhode 
Island,  Connecticut,  New  York,  and  Mjfssachusetts,  less  than 
one  per  cent  of  the  children  from  ten  to  thirteen  years  of 
age  are  found  to  be  at  work.  In  other  states,  nearly  half 
of  the  children  of  that  age  are  at  work.  In  some  states  law^s 
have  been  passed  which  compel  children  to  go  to  school 
until  they  are  fourteen.  In  others  night  work  in  mines  and 
quarries  is  forbidden  for  those  under  fourteen.  Some  states 
limit  the  hours  during  which  children  may  work.  In  1 91 G  the 
national  government  passed  a  law  which  would  have  largely 
restricted  child  labor  throughout  the  entire  country,  but 
unfortunatelN'  the  law  was  declared  by  the  Supreme  Court 
to  be  unconstitutional. 


GOVERNMENT    AM)    MAKIXC    A    IJVI\<;         203 

Labor  of  women.  Added  lu  tlic  v\\\^  wliicli  arise  Iroin 
child  liihor  arc  those  which  eoiiie  tVoin  the  work  nf  uoineu 
in  the  iiuhistrics  of  the  eoiititry.  In  iceeiit  years  wnmeii 
ha,\('  become  workers  in  ureal  l.\  inereasin;;  niiinhcrs. 
T\v(Mity-fi\e  years  ai;;o  ahoiit  the  only  ()een|)ati(tns  open  t<t 
women  were  teachinu'  and  household  ser\  ice.     Women  were 


Cuurttxy  uf  Satlonnl  Clillil  Littxir  CommUlte 
Family  Wohkinc.  on  Patriotic  Fi.ac;  Pins 
What  rriticisiii  wniild  \(>u  niaki-  on  siidi  work? 


supposed  to  take  care  of  the  liome  or  lead  a  life  of  h-isuro. 
All  this  has  chant^^cd.  ANC  now  find  women  entering'  almost 
all  occupations  formerly  followed  hy  men  those  of  motor 
car  conductor,  chaufieur,  machinist,  as  well  as  the  more 
common  callings  of  clerk,  stenof;raj)her,  mill  worker,  etc. 
In  the  past  workers  have  l)een  nnich  underpaid,  and  for 
long  hours  and  small  wages  have  been  forced  to  work  in  nn- 
healthful  and  unsanitary  surroundings  by  the  same  sort  of 


204  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

profiteers  as  those  who  lived  on  child  labor.  No  attempt 
was  made  to  remedy  conditions,  because  the  workers  were 
women  who  were  forced  to  do  the  work  assigned  them  or 
starve.  A  low  wage  "  invariably  means  living  under  condi- 
tions w^hich  are  detrimental  to  health ;  .  .  .  the  young 
women  have,  moreover,  but  little  chance  for  self-betterment." 
To  remedy  these  conditions  the  hours  wdiich  women  may 
work  have  been  set  by  the  laws  of  many  states.  Some 
states  prohibit  women  from  being  employed  at  night  work, 
insist  upon  the  safeguarding  of  machinery,  require  that  good 
sanitary  conditions  must  be  furnished  in  the  places  wdiere 
they  work,  and  specify  particularly  that  seats  shall  be  pro- 
vided so  that  the  workers  will  not  have  to  stand  for  long 
periods  of  time.  Within  the  last  few  years  a  number  of 
states  have  passed  minimum  wage  laws.  This  means  that 
no  one  in  any  specified  trade  may  receive  for  her  work  less 
than  the  sum  stated  by  the  law. 

Clothing  and  the  sweating  system.  —  One  e\'il  resulting 
from  modern  labor  has  not  as  yet  been  satisfactorily  con- 
trolled. This  is  the  so-called  sweating  or  sweat-shop  labor. 
This  kind  of  labor  is  found  particularly  in  the  clothing  trades. 

Clothing  is  as  much  a  necessity  of  life  as  water  or  food 
not  only  for  our  health  and  comfort,  but  also  for  adornment. 
Government  has  looked  after  food  and  water  very  carefully 
that  we  may  not  endanger  our  health  by  the  use  of  impure 
food  or  polluted  water.  It  is  not  so  with  the  clothing  we 
wear.  Laws  have  been  passed  to  forbid  the  adulteration  of 
textiles,  and  to  put  a  stop  to  misrepresentation  of  facts  re- 
garding the  materials  from  w'hich  our  clothes  are  made. 
Yet  the  sweat-shop  with  all  its  dangers  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  a  great  amount  of  clothing.  This  usually  means 
work  done  in  the  home  for  very  low  wages,  by  people  work- 


OOVKKXMKXT    AND    MA  K  IXC    A     LIVIX(i         LM).", 

iii,i;'  imdcr  uii.s;uiit;u-y  coiiditidiis  iind  lop  wvy  Unv^  lioiirs. 
By  far  tlu'  i,nTat(.'r  iiuiiiIht  of  those  workinn;  in  the  swciit- 
shops  arc  forei-^nicrs,  who  luraiisc  of  ilu-ir  i-rnoraiice  and  their 
fi-reat  need  of  support  for  thenisohcs  and  faniihes,  arr  wilhn^' 
to  work  for  such  small  wages.  Wlioje  faniihes  Hviiig  in  one 
room  engage  in  this  work  for  unhehexahly  low  wages,  for 
examj^le,  "making  roses  and  \iolcts  :it  thnc  to  eight  cents 


'  •iiiiiiitirj  iif  .1  HI.  rUn 
MODKHN     HkaI'KK 

Write  a  composition  describing  the  wori<  of  such  a  reaper  as  is  shown  in  tlio 

picture. 


a  gross,  baby  dresses  at  45  cents  a  dozen,  willow  plumes  at 
41  knots  for  one  cent."  Ignorant  of  the  spread  of  disease, 
investigators  have  found  garrneiits  brought  to  the  home 
to  be  made,  lying  on  the  beil  of  those  ill  with  contagious 
diseases.  "  A  tailor  was  found  working  on  a  sununer  over- 
coat in  a  room  in  which  was  a  patient  ill  with  the  smallpox." 
Children's  clothes  were  made  in  the  same  room  where  children 
were  ill  with  the  scarlet  fe\(  r.  Not  only  are  the  garments 
made  imder  such  conditions  a  menace  to  the  outside  worM, 
but  the  workers  themsches  are  forced  to  eat.  sleep,  cook. 


200 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


and  work  in  one  or  two  rooms.  Little  children  of  three  or 
four  years  ha\e  been  found  helping  by  pulling  out  bastings 
or  other  such  work.  In  one  block  alone  in  New  York  City, 
there  were  77  factories  of  this  sort  and  40,000  workers. 
States  have  attempted  to  pass  laws  which  would  break  uj) 


Couricsy  of  InttTnutioniil  Hnntsicr  ('ompany  of  America 
Cutting  Grain  with  a  Cradle 
Compare  this  picture  with  the  one  on  page  209. 


this  evil,  but  thus  far  have  not  succeeded  \ery  well.  Many 
occupations  are  not  prescribed  by  law,  and  therefore  the 
places  where  they  are  carried  on  are  not  subjt^ct  to  inspection 
and  regulation  by  the  authorities. 

Trade  unions. — Workers  themselves  have  remedied 
many  of  the  evils  attending  modern  labor.  This  is  by  means 
of  what  is  known  as  "  trade  unions."     These  have  been 


GOVERNMENT    AND    MAKiXC    .\    Livixc         i.>()7 

defined  as  "  combinations  of  \V(»rkiii-,'  people  in  j:iven  trades. 
.  .  .  Uorkin<i;  men  and  women  with  no  propt-rty  nnist 
sell  their  labor  to  live.  It'  as  indi\i(hiaU  the>  hid  a^'ainst 
each  other  for  jobs,  the  employer  is  able  to  beat  wap^  down. 


( 'iimi"i'i\i  .</  .1 1 


CUTTINl.     (iK.\>.-<     \\  1  1  H      \     .^i    iiilK 

Compare  with  the  picture  on  pane  205. 

If  they  unite,  they  have  more  strength  in  dealint;  with  em- 
ployers and  secure  better  wajres  and  honrs  f<»r  all." 

The  unions  have  two  chief  ways  in  which  they  may  attempt 
to  better  their  conditions,  the  strike  and  the  boycott,  and  a 
third  m'is;\\t  be  added  to  these  two,  arbitration.  The  chief  of 
these  is  the  strike.     This  is  a  c»tneerte<|  refu>al  i>n  the  part 


208  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

of  the  employees  to  work  unless  certain  demands  they  make 
are  granted.  These  demands  may  be  for  shorter  hours  of 
work,  more  pay,  or  the  remedying  of  any  bad  conditions 
in  the  factory.  Sometimes  such  strikes  are  accompanied 
by  violence,  unless  the  demands  of  the  strikers  are  complied 
with.  Howe\'er,  the  leaders  usually  try  to  restrain  the 
workers  from  such  acts.  To  preserve  order  it  has  sometimes 
been  necessary  for  the  governor  of  the  state  to  call  out  the 
state  militia  or  to  ask  for  the  help  of  the  federal  troops.  At 
one  time  President  Cleveland  was  forced  to  call  out  the  regular 
soldiers  of  the  United  States  because  rioters  interfered  with 
the  carrying  of  United  States  mail.  About  one  half  of  the 
strikes  are  successful.  Strikes  are  settled  either  by  the  two 
parties  in  the  dis])ute  reaching  an  agreement,  or  by  arbitra- 
tion. ]\Iany  of  the  states  maintain  a  Bureau  of  jNIediation 
and  Arbitration,  the  duty  of  which  is  to  offer  its  services 
to  settle  disputes  in  which  labor  is  concerned.  When 
such  a  grievance  is  settled  by  arbitration,  each  side  in 
the  dispute  chooses  one  or  two  to  represent  it  in  the 
conference,  and  those  so  chosen  select  one  or  two  more, 
and  both  sides  agree  to  abide  by  the  decision  rendered. 
During  the  war  with  Germany,  the  federal  government 
appointed  a  board  to  settle  disputes  between  capital  and 
labor. 

A  boycott  is  a  refusal  on  the  part  of  a  body  of  people  to 
have  dealings  with  some  one  whom  they  wish  to  force  to 
comply  with  their  demands.  Those  carrying  out  the  boycott 
usually  try  to  get  others  to  join  with  them.  The  employer 
has  as  his  weapon  the  "  blacklist,"  a  list  of  those  who  are 
prominent  in  strikes  and  boycotting.  Such  a  list  is  placed 
in  the  hands  of  all  employers,  and  those  on  the  list  are 
refused  work. 


COVERXMEXT    AXD    MAKIXfl    A    I.IVIXf.         'J(M) 


■i>nr 


210  rOMMUNITV    nVTOS 

The  Federation  of  Labor.  —  The  American  Federation 
of  Labor,  the  great  hibor  organization,  has  to-day  more  than 
two  milhon  members.  It  is  made  up  of  unions  of  many 
trades.  One  writer  compares  the  relations  of  these  unions 
with  the  great  central  body  of  the  Federation,  to  the  relation 
of  the  states  with  the  central  government  of  the  nation. 
Among  the  things  which  the  Federation  stands  for  are  an 
eight-hour  day  and  a  Saturday  half  holiday,  inspection  of 
factories,  no  child  labor,  old-age  pensions,  and  more  educa- 
tion, particularly  vocational  education. 


Questions  for  Investigation 

1.  Does  either  your  father  or  your  mother  loelong  to  a  trade  union? 
If  so,  ask  them  to  tell  you  the  advantages  they  derive  from  such  member- 
ship?    Are  there  any  disadvantages? 

2.  What  is  a  "union  hibel"?     What  is  its  purpose ? 

3.  Give  examples  of  division  of  labor  in  your  home.  Is  there  any 
division  of  labor  in  your  school  ?  If  so,  make  a  report  to  the  class 
concerning  it. 

4.  What  are  the  laws  which  your  state  has  passed  for- the  protection 
of  children  who  work  ?  Do  your  school  authorities  have  anything  to 
do  with  the  enforcement  of  these  laws  ?     If  so,  what  ? 

5.  What  laws  has  your  state  passed  for  the  protection  of  women  who 
are  compelled  to  work  ? 

6.  What  is  a  "minimum  wage"  law?  Has  your  state  such  a  law? 
What  are  its  provisions  ? 

7.  What  are  some  of  the  causes  of  unemployment  ?    ■ 

8.  What  measures  have  been  taken  in  your  community  and  your 
state  to  reduce  unemployment  ? 

9.  What  are  some  of  the  ways  in  which  unemi)loyment  affects  the 
individual  ? 

10.  In  what  way  did  the  labor  of  the  boy  and  girl  told  of  in  the  first 
chapter  differ  from  that  of  the  Indian  boys  and  girls?  From  the  boys 
and  girls  of  to-day  ? 

11.  For  what  reasons  is  it  good  for  girls  and  boys  to  work?  Could 
such  labor  l)ec()me  harmful?     If  so,  how? 


(iOVKHNMKNT    AM)    MAKINC    A    IJVINC 


iL*.  What  is  iiK'aiit  hy  tlu-  "(laii^jcrous  trades"?  Ciivc  soiiio  ex- 
aiiii)l('s  of  such  trades.  What  precautions  are  lu'irij,'  taken  to  make  them 
less  dangerous?     Have  you  any  such  in  your  conununity  V 

13.  Do  you  think  that  men  and  women  sliould  receive  "e(|nal  pay 
for  equal  work  "  't     Wliy  ? 


CHAPTER   XIV 
GOVERNMENT   AND    MAKING  A  LIVING 

Capital 

The  third  element  in  making  a  Hving  is  capital.  It  has 
been  defined  as  "  that  part  of  wealth  used  to  produce  more 
wealth."  It  is  derived  from  land  and  labor,  yet  it  is  different 
from  both.  ]\Iany  things  are  capital  which  we  do  not  think 
of  as  such.  The  book  you  study,  the  microscope  which  you 
use  in  the  laboratory,  the  instrument  you  use  in  drawing 
are  part  of  your  capital  if  you  use  them  to  produce  wealth. 
Capital  may  be  in  the  form  of  factories  or  other  buildings, 
money,  or  machinery  of  any  kind.  But  remember  that 
these  things  must  be  used  to  produce  more  wealth. 

To  be  most  useful,  capital  must  be  joined  to  labor.  Just 
as  two  horses  hitched  side  by  side  must  pull  together  in 
order  to  plow  the  field  with  a  straight  furrow,  so  capital 
and  labor  must  pull  together  and  not  in  opposite  directions 
to  get  good  results.  Capital  must  not  try  to  gain  an  advan- 
tage over  labor,  neither  must  labor  try  to  get  the  better  of 
capital.  The  greatest  amount  of  wealth  is  gained  for  all 
when  the  three  elements  are  in  harmony.  In  the  preceding 
chapter  we  have  studied  some  of  the  evils  which  arise  when 
capital  tries  to  get  the  better  of  labor,  and  the  destruction 
which  labor  causes  when  it  tries  to  overcome  capital.  The 
only  way  is  for  them  to  work  together, 

212 


GOVERNMEXT    AND    MA  K  INC    A    IJVIXC         213 

Capital  and  wealth.  \\V  imi>t  (li>tiiimii>li  (anliill^  l.r- 
tweeii  the  incaiiinu-  «»t'  tlir  word^  capital  and  wraltli.  If  the 
wealth  is  not  used  to  pnuhice  soinetliinj:  it  is  not  capital. 
The  man  who  spends  money  foolishly  is  wasting;  wealth  that 
might  be  used  as  capital.  The  man  who  .saves  ;i  hundred 
dollars  and  then  digs  a  hole  and  huries  it,  is  not  adding  to 
capital;  but  if  he  puts  the  hundred  dollars  in  the  bank, 
where  it  will  draw  interest,  then  he  is  adding  to  ca|iital. 


urtfsu  Of  r.  C.  Htagon 


A  tJALT  Mink 
One  of  tlie  ni;my  form.s  of  the  use  rtf  capital. 

Capital  is  the  result  of  saving  and  thrift  and  (tf  greater 
efficiency  in  work.  If  every  one  sj)ent  all  he  earned,  there 
would  be  nothing  with  which  to  increase  capital,  there  would 
be  nothing  to  save  for  the  future.  War  wa.stes  eajjital.  The 
things  which  capital  and  labor  together  haxc  produ<'cd  are 
utterly  destroyed.  One  reason  wh\  the  World  War  wa> 
fought  was  that  in  tlie  future  no  nation  might  dare  plan 
to  destroy  the  capital  of  the  world  which  might  be  turned 
to  good  uses.     The  war  taught  us  how  to  sa\c  in>t«'ad  of 


214  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

destroy,  yet  m;iny  were  t'ound  wlio  instead  of  sjiviiifj,  sj)ent 
all  of  the  higher  wages  received,  and  in  the  end  were  worse  off 
than  on  a  smaller  income. 

A  corporation.  —  When  men  go  into  business  now-a-days, 
two  or  more  usually  combine  their  capital  and  form  a  com- 
pany or  corporation.  These  corporations  are  formed  some- 
what after  the  same  manner  as  the  trading  companies 
which  settled  America.  They  went  to  the  king  for  a  charter  ; 
the  charter  stated  the  place  of  meeting,  the  officers  and  their 
duties,  and  the  powers  which  the  company  had.  Such  a 
trading  company  was  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Company. 
The  corporation  of  the  present  day  must  apply  to  a  state 
government  for  a  charter.  The  president  of  the  corporation 
corresponds  to  the  governor  of  the  company,  the  vice  presi- 
dent to  the  deputy-governor,  the  treasurer  to  the  treasurer, 
and  the  board  of  directors  to  the  assistants  of  the  trading 
company.  The  corporation  carries  on  its  business  in  about 
the  same  manner  as  the  old  company.  Stock  is  sold  to  those 
who  wish  to  buy,  and  its  value  fluctuates  as  it  did  then. 
Sometimes  the  stock  becomes  very  valuable,  and  the  in- 
vestors become  wealthy ;  again  many  companies  have 
nothing  but  a  charter  to  start  on  and  after  getting  the 
investors'  money  the  company  fails,  and  all  the  money  is 
lost.  Most  commonwealths  have  strict  laws  which  govern 
the  formation  of  companies,  and  their  investments  are 
guarded  against  fraud.  Heavy  punishments  are  provided 
for  those  who  promote  fraudulent  companies.  Some  states 
are  very  careful  about  issuing  charters  to  companies,  others 
are  not;  and  as  a  company  properly  chartered  in  one  state 
may  do  business  in  another  many  doubtful  corporations 
have  been  chartered,  and  much  capital  has  been  lost  by  in- 
vestment in  them. 


CJOXKKNMKN'r    AND    MAKINC    A     IJNINC  "_' I .") 


216  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

"  Big  Business."  — The  present  time  is  called  the  era  of 
"  big  business."  The  earlier  companies  had  only  a  small 
amount  of  capital  and  only  a  small  amount  of  business. 
Within  recent  years  capital  has  begun  to  combine.  The 
earliest  form  was  the  "  gentleman's  agreement,"  then  came 
"  pooling,"  followed  by  the  "trust/'  and  then  the  "  holding 
company."  Most  of  these  combinations  of  capital  were 
formed  in  utter  disregard  of  the  rights  of  others  in  business. 
Prices  were  raised,  illegal  ways  of  doing  business  were  fol- 
lowed, weaker  competitors  were  ruthlessly  crushed,  and  some 
great  corporations  became  such  a  menace  to  the  public  that 
they  were  declared  illegal  by  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court  and  forced  to  separate  into  smaller  companies  wliich 
could  not  smother  competition. 

]\Iost  states  have  at  the  present  time  anti-trust  laws 
which  for'oid  any  combinations  of  capital  which  may  re- 
strain trade  or  make  a  monopoly  of  any  product.  This 
means  that  several  corporations  may  not  unite  for  the  pur- 
pose of  underselling  their  opponents  to  cause  them  to  fail 
or  for  the  })urpose  of  destroying  competition.  It  has  been 
difficult  to  prove  that  a  company-  has  a  monopoly  of  any 
article,  and  some  other  method  of  breaking  up  the  monopoly 
must  be  found. 

Anti-trust  laws.  —  In  1894  the  federal  government  passed 
what  is  known  as  the  Sherman  Anti-trust  law  and  strength- 
ened it  in  1916  by  the  Clayton  Act.  By  these  laws  corpora- 
tions are  forbidden  to  do  an\thing  which  may  interfere  with 
competition,  declaring  illegal  "  the  charging  of  dift'erent 
prices  in  different  localities  for  the  purpose  of  destroying 
local  competition."  Those  who  sell  goods  must  be  allowed 
to  ask  any  price  they  choose  for  them,  even  though  the 
manufacturer  wishes  to  force  all  who  sell  goods  to  have 


GOVERNMENT    AND    MA  K  IXC    A    LIVINC  L' I  7 

Olio  pricr.  Tliroiii^h  tlie  difliciiltx  of  pioviii^^  the  Inriiiat ioii 
of  trusts  the  anti-trust  laws  liaxc  not  !»('(  n  as  cfliciiiit  as 
could  be  wished.  Durin^^  the  war  with  (icrniaiiy  >oinc  of  the 
corporations  became  so  jxtwerful  that  how  to  control  them 
l)ecaine  one  of  the  threat  prol)leins  (jf  ^ox'ernnient  after  the 
war.  It  is  competition  which  makes  maimfacturers  krcp 
their  profits  at  a  reasonable  amount.  At  the  j)re.sent  time 
great  corporations  have  taken  the  i)lace  of  tin-  trusts.  There 
is  a  difference  between  the  present  giant  corporation  and  the 
previous  ones.  Those  of  the  present  day  actually  buy  out 
their  competitors,  while  the  trusts  were  combinations  of 
companies  which  placed  their  business  in  the  hands  of 
trustees  (whence  the  name  of  "  trust"),  who  held  the  >tock 
of  the  different  companies  and  <lid  business  for  the  combina- 
tion. 

Credit.  —  The  great  corporations  could  not  do  all  their 
great  amount  of  business  with  mone.\-.  foi-  tlifn-  is  not  enough 
for  them  all  to  use  at  once  if  such  a  thing  i)ecanie  necessary. 
Even  if  there  were,  it  would  be  very  incoiu'enient  to  carry 
a  million  dollars,  even  in  paper  money,  to  make  a  pa\  iiient, 
when  such  a  large  amount  passes  from  one  corixtration  to 
another.  As  it  is,  many  transactions  are  carried  on  without 
the  use  of  money  at  all.     This  is  through  the  n^c  of  credit. 

Let  us  suppose  that  before  you  went  to  school  tlii>  morning 
your  mother  sent  you  to  the  grocery  store  to  buy  a  loaf  of 
bread.  You  receive  it  from  the  grocer,  and  then  say, 
"  Charge  it,  please."  The  grocer  writes  in  his  account  book 
that  your  father  owes  him  for  a  loaf  of  bread,  and  at  the  end 
of  the  week  or  month  he  renders  a  bill  for  \\\r  amount  that 
has  been  charged,  and  your  father  pa\  s  it.  Thi-<  i-<  <-alled 
extending  credit  to  a  i)erson.  This  is  possible  because  he 
knows  that  vour  father  is  an  h(.nest   man  and  an   upright 


218  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

citizen  and  that  he  will  pay  the  bill.  If  he  did  not  believe 
this,  he  would  refuse  to  charge  the  amount  and  would  insist 
on  cash  for  the  transaction  at  the  time  the  exchange  was 
made.  Because  there  are  many  dishonest  people,  the  govern- 
ment protects  the  grocer.  In  some  states  if  a  man  does 
not  pay  his  bills,  the  law  forces  him  to  do  so.  The  good 
citizen  always  pays  his  bills,  and  better  yet,  if  he  can,  does 
not  ask  the  grocer  or  other  merchant  to  extend  credit,  but 
pays  cash  for  all  that  is  bouglit. 

Credit  such  as  this  is  the  basis  of  most  of  the  transactions 
in  the  business  world  to-day.  This  is  possible  because  the 
corporations  and  those  with  whom  they  do  business,  have 
confidence  in  one  another  and  in  their  honesty  and  ability 
to  pay.  Business  has  several  ways  of  extending  credit,  in 
addition  to  "  charging  goods."  Sometimes  a  person  gives 
a  promissory  note,  that  is,  a  written  promise  to  pay  the  sum 
due  at  a  specified  time.  Such  a  note  usually  bears  interest. 
The  manufacturer  has  confidence  in  the  ability  of  the  mer- 
chant to  pay,  or  else  he  w'ould  not  extend  the  time  necessary 
for  the  bill  to  be  paid.  Ciovernment  makes  it  a  felony  to 
refuse  to  pay  a  note  of  this  sort,  and  the  courts  will  give  a 
judgment  against  one  who  does  refuse.  In  some  states  the 
proper  officer  is  permitted  to  seize  enough  of  the  merchant's 
goods  to  pay  the  bill. 

Checks.  —  A  check  is  another  means  of  extending  credit. 
Perhaps  your  father  paid  his  grocer's  bill  with  a  check.  The 
grocer  deposits  the  check  in  tlu'  l)ank  and  then  draws  another 
check  for  the  goods  he  has  bought  of  the  ])aker,  the  baker 
draws  a  check  for  the  goods  he  has  bought  of  the  miller,  and 
so  on.  It  is  plainly  seen  that  such  a  system  is  a  great  con- 
venience. If  confidence  in  the  ability  of  any  of  these  men 
to  pay  is  lacking,  his  check  will  not  be  taken.     Government 


GOVERNMF.XT    AXD    MA  K  IXC    .\     LIVIX'd         _' 1  <J 


iivr    no    tiiiid 


|)n>(iii  iitlniM' 
(IcpositctI    ill 


is   so   strict    in    |)rcscrviii,u    the   (•(.ntidnicr    uliich    iiii<I.Tlics 

credit,  that  the  l;i.\v  has  made    it   a   Inn^-tnn 

to    give    ;i    check    when    then 

the   bank    to    make    the 

check  good,  or  to  t'ory-e 

another's  name  to  a 

check,    or    to    alter    its 

value. 

Bills  of  exchanj^e  ])er- 

mit    people    at    a    j^reat 

distance   to  do  business 

with    one    another ;    for 

example,  a  merchant  in 

London  may  sell  a   bill 

of  goods  to  one  in  San 

Francisco,    and    receive 

his  pay  without  the  actual 

exchange  of  money. 

Banks.  —  Banks  do 
most  of  their  business  on 
credit.  They  ha\e  l)een 
called  "credit  factories." 
They  are  one  form  of 
corporation  which  must 
receive  a  charter  from 
the  national  or  a  state 
government. 

Those  chartered  by  the  national  goxcrnuient  are  known  as 
national  bayks.  They  must  invi-st  j)arT  of  their  (•ai)ital  funds 
in  bonds  issued  by  the  national  goNcnmieiit.  They  are  sur- 
rounded with  other  safeguards  by  federal  law.  Siieh  banks 
were  formerly  p(>rmitted  to  issue  the  bank  notes  of  which 


rnist  Ciimpnnn,  (;<ui\i''.   \  .  u   1  ■?). 

A  Hank  in  a  .S.mall  tu.M.Mi  nity 

Such  a  bank  takes  rare  of  the  capital  nf 
n  small  coniniuiiity.  Notice  the  alarm 
bell  on  the  front  of  the  biiilriiiiR.  to  pro- 
tect the  mone\'  in  the  bank. 


220  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

some  of  the  paper  money  of  the  present  time  consists.  These, 
however,  are  gra(huilly  beinji;  retired,  and  after  1935  will  be 
no  longer  in  circulation.  Their  place  will  be  taken  by  the 
notes  issued  by  the  Federal  Reserve  banks. 

State  banks  receive  their  charters  from  their  respective 
states,  instead  of  from  the  national  government.  State 
laws  are  becoming  more  strict  in  their  requirements  for 
granting  such  charters,  until  now  many  state  banks  are  as 
rigidly  supervised  as  the  national  banks. 

All  banks  are  carefully  supervised  by  the  government 
through  frequent  reports  which  must  be  made  to  federal 
and  state  authorities,  and  through  inspections  made  by 
officials  appointed  for  the  purpose.  Thus  those  who  deposit 
their  money  in  the  bank  may  be  sure  that  it  will  be  safely 
taken  care  of. 

Federal  Reserve  banks.  —  In  1913  the  federal  govern- 
ment instituted  what  are  known  as  Federal  Reserve  banks,  or 
"  bankers'  banks."  They  were  created  by  Congress  to  put 
money  in  circulation,  when  it  is  needed.  \Yh-en  a  crisis 
comes,  these  banks  are  permitted  to  issue  notes  in  exchange 
for  securities  received  from  banks  which  need  the  money, 
but  cannot  readily  dispose  of  the  securities.  These  are  the 
notes  which  will  finally  take  the  place  of  those  issued  by  the 
national  banks. 

Farm  Loan  banks.  —  In  1916  the  government  also  estab- 
lished what  are  known  as  Farm  Loan  banks.  These  are 
for  the  purpose  of  helping  farmers  who  need  money  to  tide 
over  a  crisis  in  their  financial  affairs.  For  example,  the 
western  farmers  need  money  at  certain  times  of  the  year  to 
pay  their  help  to  get  in  the  crops.  They  will  have  plenty 
of  money  when  the  crop  is  sold,  but  before  this  is  done, 
money  is  needed.     The  government,  through  the  Farm  Loan 


GOVKHNMKNT    AND    MAKINC    A     LIVINC         22 1 

bank,  loans  the  fanner  the  nfcessary  iM(»n<\\  ;  tlir  t'arnKT 
gives  sufficient  ])r()|)erty  as  security  fur  tlie  loan.  Such  a 
proceeding  lielj)s  to  transfer  capital  fi<»ni  ilie  city  where 
there  is  nnich,  to  the  country  where  there  is  a  less  ;inionnt, 
and  thus  stabilizes  capital.  Such  banks  are  under  the  c(»ntro| 
of  the  Federal  b'arin  Loan  Board. 

Saving.  -  In  addition  to  bein^^  an  institution  which 
helps  persons  to  do  l)usiness  easily  and  (piickly,  a  bank  is 
an  institution  to  help  us  save  money.  The  <,^»od  citizen 
tries  to  put  aside  ca])ital  for  future  use,  so  that  he  may  take 
care  of  himself  when  the  need  comes  and  not  be  a  i>nrden 
to  the  rest  of  the  community.  In  addition  to  the  coimnercial 
banks,  as  those  previously  mentioned  are  known,  l)ccan>e  t  hey 
confine  their  business  largely  to  business  men,  there  are  what 
are  termed  savings  banks.  Such  corporations  make  a  sj>e- 
cialty  of  receiving  the  savings  of  those. who  wish  to  lay  aside 
money, and  they  pay  a  reasonable  amount  of  interest  for  the 
use  of  the  money  deposited.  Such  banks  encourage  thr.ft. 
Some  schools  have  savings  banks  in  which  small  sums  may 
be  deposited,  and  then  a  dejxysit  is  usuall\  made  in  a  regular 
savings  bank.  At  certain  designated  post-offices  the  national 
government  has  what  arc  known  as  Postal  Savings  banks. 
These  pay  only  a  small  amount  of  interest,  but  many  prefer 
this  means  of  saving  as  a  smaller  amount  is  accei)te<|  lure 
than  in  the  regular  savings  banks.  It  is  also  considerc(| 
a  safer  investment  to  place  money  here  than  in  the  regular 
banks.  Foreigners  who  do  not  fully  understand  the  ways 
of  finance  in  this  country  use  them  to  a  large  extent.  During 
the  Great  War  we  heard  a  great  deal  about  war  savings 
stamps  and  thrift  stami)s,  and  Liberty  Ix.nds.  These  were 
sold  in  small  amounts,  so  that  they  were  in  reach  of  every 
one.      They  taught    Americans    a    nuuh-neede.l    les>on,  a 


222  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

lesson  of  saving,  a  lesson  about  which  very  many  people  in 
this  country  knew  nothing. 

Insurance. — Another  method  of  saving  is  through  insur- 
ance. Corporations  are  formed  which  upon  payment  of  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  money  will  pay  a  specified  sum  upon  the  death 
of  the  one  insured  or  in  case  of  his  sickness  or  accident  to  him. 
Regular  payments  must  be  made  each  year  to  keep  up  the  in- 
surance. When  one  knows  that  the  payment  must  be  made, 
provision  is  made  for  it,  and  so  the  money  is  saved.  At  the 
end  of  a  certain  time  the  policy,  that  is,  the  agreement  between 
the  company  and  the  insured,  is  good  for  a  certain  sum ;  it 
may  be  taken  in  cash  or  in  more  insurance.  A  fire  insurance 
company  insures  buildings  and  property  against  loss  by  fire. 
The  system  saves  many  thousands  of  dollars  each  year.  The 
small  sum  paid  each  year  will  save  large  sums  if  loss  does 
come. 

Business  and  good  citizenship.  —  What  you  have  read 
about  getting  a  li\ing  should  show  us  how  careful  a  person 
must  be  about  choosing  a  vocation  or  business.  It  is  choos- 
ing the  right  one  that  makes  the  three  elements  of  wealth 
work  most  closely  together.  There  are  so  many  people 
trying  to  make  a  living  that  the  highest  type  of  citizenship 
is  often  found  among  those  who  are  the  best  business  men. 
Those  men  who  gave  up  their  large  incomes,  some  of  them 
giving  up  many  thousands  of  dollars  a  year,  and  went  to 
work  for  the  government  at  one  dollar  a  year  to  help  in  a 
great  national  crisis,  had  learned  what  good  citizenship 
means.  They  put  their  trained  minds  to  the  country's 
service  with  no  thought  of  reward.  The  men  who  left  their 
business,  no  matter  what  it  was,  and  went  to  serve  their 
country  in  any  of  its  varied  branches  were  good  citizens. 
They  gave  back  to  the  great  community  of  the  nation  what 


GOVERNMENT    AND    .MAKI\(i    A    IJVINC         L'J!? 

it  had  (lone  for  them.  That  is  the  hij,'hcst  type  of  j^^ood 
citizenship.  Those  women,  niaiix of  tlicin  reared  in  hixur\ , 
who  went  to  the  hospital  service  in  l-'r.nicc  i>\-  to  other  scr\  ice, 
doinj;  the  dirty  work  of  the  hospitals  and  other  menial 
hihor,  knew  what  it  meant  to  l)e  f^ood  eiti/ens.  Devotion 
to  the  piibhc  service  makes  a  business  man  wilhnj;  to  take 
some  part  in  the  government  of  his  conniiiinity,  citlin-  l.y 
hohling  office  or  by  ser\-in.<;  on  sonic  board  \vhcr<'  he  may  be 
of  help. 

(^lESTIOXS    rol!    TwKSTIflATIOV 

1.  What  capital  iKncyou?      How  is  it  used  to  |)ro(liicc  more  wtaitiiy 

2.  Tell  the  story  of  the  sale  of  war  savinj^s  stamps  :ni(l  thrift 
stamps  in  your  school. 

.").  What  are  sonic  of  the  laws  wliicli  your  state  has  i)iisM'(i  a^'aiii>t 
the  sale  of  fraudulent  shares  of  stock  in  corporations y 

4.  Is  your  state  careful  in  the  matter  of  issuing;  eharters  to  corpora- 
tions?    If  not,  why? 

5.  Why  do  some  merchants  eousidei-  it  a  l)clt(  r  phiii  to  s<-ll  for  rash 
than  for  credit  ? 

6.  At  which  i)lace  would  you  proliai)ly  huy  articles  more  cheaply, 
at  one  which  sells  for  cash  or  at  one  which  extends  credit  ?     Why  ? 

7.  What  are  the  advantages  of  buying  on  credit  ?  What  are  the  dis- 
advantages?    Draw  some  conclusions. 

8.  Write  a  cheek  in  favor  of  your  teacher  for  four  dollars  twenty- 
five  cents. 

9.  Read  what  is  printed  on  the  face  of  a  Federal  Reserve  hank  l>ill. 
Make  a  report  to  the  class  as  to  what  is  j>rinted. 

10.  To  which  district  of  the  Federal  Reserve  hank  do  the  hanks  of 
your  locality  belong  ?  Wliere  is  the  Fecleral  Reserve  hank  of  your 
district  located  ? 

11.  What  methods  of  saving  money  do  you  iiiiploy'.'  Ha\e  you  a 
hank  account?     Why  do  you  have  one? 

12.  Is  your  life  insured  ?     Why  is  this  a  good  way  of  saving  money  f 

13.  Read  the  insurance  jjolicy  on  your  i)arents'  home  or  pro|MTty. 
What  permits  does  the  policy  carry? 

14.  What  difi'erent  kinds  of  insurance  are  there?  Do  you  ha\('  any 
except  against  fire?     If  so,  what? 


CHAPTER    XV 
BEAUTY  IN  THE  LOCAL  COMMUNITY 

A  noted  Kno'lish  aiitlior,  John  Huskin,  has  said,  "  The 
exterior  of  your  home  is  not  private  property."  By  this 
he  means  that  though  the  place  where  you  live  may  be  yoiu's, 
and  what  you  may  have  and  do  inside  your  home  is  your  own 
concern,  the  outside  has  an  effect  upon  every  one  who  sees 
it.  If  the  surroundings  of  your  home  are  beautiful,  or  if 
they  are  neatly  kept,  —  and  neatness  is  one  of  the  best  forms 
of  beauty,  —  it  has  an  influence  on  those  who  live  near  you 
and  on  those  who  pass  by. 

Beauty  in  colonial  homes.  —  When  the  New  England 
colonists  built  their  homes  there  was  not  much  time  for 
adornment.  Shelter  from  tlx^  winter  storms  and  from  th.e 
attacks  of  the  Indians  was  more  necessary  than  beauty. 
Again,  the  Puritan  settlers  thought  any  attempt  to  adorn  the 
home  and  its  surroundings  was  to  show  a  love  for  worldly 
things,  a  deadly  sin.  Xot  only  the  homes,  Init  also  the 
churches,  were  severely  plain,  having  no  adornment  whatever. 

The  Hollanders  who  settled  in  New  York,  built  their  homes 
with  an  idea  of  permanency,  building  solidly  with  not  much 
attempt  at  ornament.  Yet  the  hardy  Dutch  settlers  brought 
with  them  from  their  home  country  a  love  for  flowers  which 
led  them  to  adorn  their  surroundings  with  flower  gardens 
and  shrubbery.  These  gardens  added  much  to  the  beauty 
of  the  Dutch  towns. 

The  Cavaliers  who  came  to  Virginia  and  the  other  South- 

224 


BEAUTY    IX    THK    LOCAL   C'()^I^^•MT^■  '22') 

ern  colonics,  caino  from  soiiu'  of  the  hcuiit iful  lji<:li>li  hoiiics. 
These  they  tried  to  copy  wiien  they  hiiilt  tlieir  iioiiics  in  the 
new  world.  They  remembered  the  wide  lawns  and  the 
beautiful  gardens  of  old  England,  and  in  so  far  as  they  could 
transplanted  the  beauty  of  their  mother  count r.\  to  the 
strugglintr  colonies. 


The  Htone  House  near  Livinclston 

This  colonial  home  was  built  150  years  ago.     Its  wails  are  IS  iiulies  tliirk 
Notice  the  north  wall  has  only  two  .small  windows.     Why? 


Beautifying  modern  homes.  —  It  !.->  not,  howt-vcr.  until 
comparatively  recent  times  that  general  attention  in  Americii 
has  been  turned  toward  the  adorning  of  whole  streets  ol 
homes  by  a  concerted  ctibrt  and  i)lan.  Bt>antifying  a  home 
may  mean  keeping  the  house  and  its  surrtumilings  clean. 
It  may  mean  painting  the  house,  or  adorning  it  with 
boxes  of  flowers,  shrubbery,  an<l  \ines.  To  the  end  that 
there  mav  be  concerted  action  in  cleaning  up.  munieipalities 


220 


COM M UNITY    CIVICS 


have  set  aside  the  "  clean-up  days,"  which  have  been  men- 
tioned, in  which  with  the  assistance  of  the  authorities,  the 
rubbish  and  debris  which  has  accumulated  about  a  home, 
may  be  cleaned  up  and  carted  away.  This  helps  to  make 
a  citv  more  beautiful.     In  some  cities,  a  holiday  is  given 


Cimrlcsy  of  National  Caali  RegisUr  rnmiianu 
A  Badly  Kept  Street 
Compare  this  picture  with  the  one  of  the  same  street  opposite. 

to  all  the  children  in  the  city  schools,  that  they  may  help 
clean  up. 

In  foreign  countries,  Belgium,  Holland,  France,  and  Eng- 
land, for  many  years  the  householders  have  decorated  the 
fronts  of  their  houses  with  window  boxes  of  bright  flowers 
and  graceful  vines.  Great  pride  has  been  taken  in  having 
the  best  display.  To  encourage  rivalry,  the  different  munic- 
ipal governments  have  offered  prizes  to  those  whose  dis- 


BEAUTY    IN    'I'lIK    LOCAL    (  o.M  M  I '  M'l•^ 


play  was  the  most  artistic,  or  to  t\\o>v  who  j)iit  forth  tiiu 
most  ett'ort  to  remedy  the  unsightly  appearance  of  the  homes. 
Those  which  bring  so  much  beauty  to  the  (hill,  dreary  street 
walls  of  London,  are  exidences  of  what  nia>  be  aceoiiipli->hed 
bv  all  workinii;  together  for  one  object. 


(iiurlisy  111  .Siiltiiniii  ((!•.«  tuvini'  <  'imixiny 

Thk  Samk  Stkkkt  aftkr  It  Had  Hken  Hkaltifiki. 

During  recent  years,  the  towns  and  cities  of  the  I  nited 
States  have  been  working  along  the  same  lines  as  the  Kuro- 
pean  cities.  T'nsightly  homes  have  been  cleaned  uj).  Win- 
dow boxes  bloom  from  the  \vind(»w  ^ilU  of  many  homes. 
Rubbish  has  been  cleared  away.  Tlu-  municijjalities  have 
taken  on  new  beauty.  In  a  recent  com|)etiti(.n  olfered  by 
an  American  city  for  the  be>t  window  boxes,  the  first  prize 
was  won   bv   a   window   l)(»x  di>play  on   a   ramshackle   <.ld 


228  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

tenement.  The  boxes  were  made  from  old  soap  boxes,  but 
the  flowers  were  tended  by  kning  hands  and  were  an  object 
lesson  in  civic  ideals  to  all  who  saw  them.  It  has  been  said 
that  such  efi'orts  "  steal  at  least  some  hardness  and  monotony 
from  close-set  residence  streets  and  make  a  fringe  of  waver- 
ing delicacy  in  the  angle  of  pavement  and  wall." 

Beauty  in  Dayton,  Ohio.  —  A  very  notable  example  of 
what  may  be  done  by  concerted  effort  to  make  the  outside 
of  homes  a  credit  to  the  city  has  been  accomplished  in  Dayton, 
Ohio.  "  Here  a  manufacturing  company  moved  into  a 
squalid  neighborhood,  and  beautified  its  own  grounds, 
ornamenting  them  on  plans  furnished  by  an  expert  land- 
scape gardener.  The  whole  neighborhood  was  so  influenced 
by  the  example  and  by  the  company's  offer  of  liberal  prizes 
for  the  best  front  and  back  yards,  window  boxes,  and  porches, 
as  to  be  redeemed  very  shortly.  Indeed  the  claim  is  made 
that  the  street  on  which  most  of  the  employees  live,  is,  con- 
sidering the  length  and  the  cost  of  the  houses,  the  prettiest 
street  in  the  world." 

The  beauty  of  lawns.  —  There  is  nothing  which  adds 
more  to  the  beauty  of  a  town  than  well-kept  lawns.  Some- 
times boys  who  are  set  by  their  parents  to  take  care  of  the 
lawn  and  weed  the  flower  beds,  feel  that  it  is  very  hard  work, 
and  do  not  wish  to  do  it.  Did  these  boys  ever  stop  to  think 
that  they  are  doing  something  not  only  for  their  parents,  but 
also  for  themselves  and  for  the  whole  community?  Did 
they  ever  stop  to  think  that  they  are  learning  the  first 
principles  of  good  citizenship  ?  It  is  the  good  citizen  who 
is  proud  of  his  home  and  its  surroundings,  and  it  is  the 
poor  citizen  who  is  willing  to  live  in  a  dirty,  ill-kept  home. 
Suppose  all  the  lawns  were  without  care,  overrun  with 
weeds  and   with  the  grass  uncut,  —  how  would   you  like 


BEAUTY    TX   THE    LOCAL   COMMUNITY 


229 


to   live   in   a   city    wliere   there   was  siieli   a  coiKiition    of 
affairs  ? 

The  back  yard.  —  If  it  is  fitting-  to  kcc])  tlie  front  of  the 
house  in  fine  coniHtion,  what  shall  he  done  with  the  hack 
yard?  It  is  more  often  in  the  l)aek  \anl  than  in  front  of 
the  house,  that  had   citizenship    is  to  l)e    seen.      In    cities 


Courltsu  of  Saitcc  F.  liaumann 


A   Hack   \ ww  Gahdkn 

Write  a  composition  about  your  garden,  or  about  tlie  om-  you  would  like  to 

have. 

particularly,  the  back  yard  is  of  small  area,  (.ftcn  <iiven  over 
to  an  accumulation  of  ashes,  tin  cans,  and  other  rubbish,  the 
breeding  place  of  disease.  It  takes  but  a  little  time  each  da\- 
on  the  part  of  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  family  to  clean  out 
the  heaps  of  dirt  and  turn  the  back  yard  into  a  thing  ..f 
beauty.  P:f^"ort  alone  is  needed,  not  money.  Many  hoys  and 
girls  have  turne.l  these  unattractive  spots  into  gardens,  and 
those  who  have  a  vegetai)lc  garden  .•ontril.ntc  coMsi.lcrabiy 


'2'M)  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

to  the  support  of  the  lioine  l)y  tlie  amount  of  food  that  may 
he  raised  in  a  hack  yard.  Others  prefer  a  flower  garden, 
and  so  make  of  the  formerly  unsightly  heaps,  a  thing  of 
beauty. 

Beauty  in  the  schools.  —  People  to-day  are  not  only 
trying  to  make  their  homes  more  attractive,  both  inside  and 
out,  but  they  are  giving  attention  to  the  beautifying  of  school 
buildings  and  grounds.  Formerly  it  was  thought  that  any 
location  was  good  enough  for  a  school  provided  it  could  be 
bought  cheaply.  Any  sort  of  architecture  was  suitable 
as  long  as  the  building  protected  the  children  from  the 
weather  and  had  a  sufficient  number  of  seats  for  them. 
To-day  when  a  school  is  built,  if  it  is  possible,  a  large  plot 
of  ground  is  purchased  in  one  of  the  best  sections  of  the 
community.  The  architects  who  are  asked  to  draw  up  the 
plans  for  the  new  building  try  to  adapt  the  building  to  the 
location  and  make  the  whole  a  thing  of  beauty.  Land- 
scape gardeners  are  called  in  to  advise  as  to  the  laying  out 
of  the  grounds  so  that  the  whole  effect  may  be  pleasing 
and  harmonious.  The  interior  is  arranged  not  only  for 
usefulness,  but  so  that  its  beauty  may  make  an  impression 
upon  those  who  study  there.  The  walls  are  tinted  a  pleas- 
ing color,  pictures  and  statuary  are  placed  in  the  rooms 
and  halls,  flowers  and  growing  plants  decorate  the  windows. 

What  part  do  the  boys  and  girls  have  in  all  this  ?  Since 
the  school  authorities  have  taken  so  much  pains  to  give 
beautiful  surroundings  to  the  pupils,  they  should  make  the 
best  use  possible  of  what  is  provided.  Everything  is  made 
easy  for  study.  The  seats  are  comfortable,  the  ventilation 
is  good,  and  everywhere  one  looks  upon  something  of  beauty. 
Second,  the  boys  and  girls  should  be  so  proud  of  their  school, 
that  they  will  take  care  of  what  is  provided  for  them  and  not 


BEAUTY    I\'    TIIK    IJXAI.    CoMMIMTN  J'M 

destroy  its  beauty.  Strtuif^c  to  say  \vr  soiiictiiiu-s  find  clialk 
marks  or  pencil  marks  on  the  walls  of  a  hcautifiil  xlii.nl 
building  and  ink  spots  on  the  desks  and  floors.  rapcr>  are 
scattered  about  the  lawn  for  some  one  else  to  dean  up. 
Ought  this  to  be?  Think  it  oxer,  and  m-c  what  is  i/oitr 
part  in  making  your  school  a  nit)re  beautil'iil  i>art  i>f  your 
community. 

How  cities  grew  ugly.  —  As  cities  l)egaii  to  grow  it  brcanie 
more  difficult  to  keep  them  beautiful.  The  l)uildings  in  the 
business  section  were  crowded  together,  the  streets  were 
filled  with  traffic,  and  the  ])a\enients  were  worn  and  more 
difficult  to  keep  clean.  The  trees  were  killed  by  the 
gases  and  smoke  from  the  factories.  I  gl>'  telegraj)h  and 
telephone  poles  Avere  erected,  and  the  trolley  companies 
stretched  their  wires  through  the  street.  Often,  too,  the 
kind  of  people  who  lived  in  the  houses  changed,  and  many 
beautiful  places  were  given  over  to  ugly  tenements  such  as 
you  read  about  in  a  previous  chapter,  whose  owners  did  not 
care  for  anything  excei)t  the  inoiu-y  they  might  reeeixc. 
Dirt  and  refuse  accimiulated,  and  where  there  were  once 
stately  houses  and  wide  lawns,  there  were  garbage  cans  and 
heaps  of  ashes  thrown  out  by  careless  tenants.  ^Vhat  can 
a  city  do  under  such  conditions?  What  j)art  ha\c  tiie  boys 
and  girls  in  restoring  to  their  town  something  of  it^  fnrnier 
beauty  ? 

How  a  city  may  beautify  itself.  I'irst  of  all  it  is  the 
business  of  the  city  to  lay  good  pavements  so  that  the  traflic 
in  the  streets  may  be  taken  care  of  as  easily  as  i)ossible  atid 
the  street  may  be  properly  cleaned.  Dirt  is  always  ugly. 
It  is  the  duty  of  the  boys  and  girl>  who  use  the  streets  to 
help  keep  them  clean.  A  street  may  be  beautiful  because  it 
is  clean.     When  the  pockets  an>  full  of  paper  in  the  scIkm.I- 


232 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


room  it  is  well  to  remember  that  there  are  places  provided 
to  put  waste  paper,  and  not  throw  it  in  the  street.  Remem- 
ber that  your  rights  extend  only  so  far  as  they  do  not  inter- 
fere with  the  rights  of  others.  The  city  maintains  a  force 
of  men  to  keep  the  streets  clean,  and  boys  and  girls  can  do 
their  share  in  helping  by  being  careful  in  this  matter.     Some 


Courlcsu  of  National  Cash  Register  Company 
A  Back  Yard  before  Beautifying 


cities  have  gone  yet  farther,  by  appointing  a  sanitary  squad 
from  the  young  people,  who  go  about  the  city  and  see  that 
it  is  kept  clean,  that  garbage  cans  are  emptied  and  taken 
care  of,  and  that  rubbish  is  cleared  from  unsightly  places. 

One  of  the  greatest  problems  that  a  city  has  to  solve  is 
that  of  trying  to  overcome  and  do  away  with  the  ugliness 
that  has  become  so  manifest  in  many  communities.  By 
city  ordinances  the  telegraph  and  telephone  companies  are 


BEAUTY    IX    Till-;    I.OCAI.    (■()M^^■\IT^ 


i.i'i 


forced  to  place  their  wires  underyrouiid.  The  trolley  com- 
panies place  their  wires  uiideruroiirid  or  receive  per- 
mission from  owners  to  fasten  their  wires  to  the  walls  of  the 
buildings  along  the  streets,  thus  doing  away  with  their  nn- 
sightly  poles.  The  electric  light  poles  are  replaced  hy  an 
artistic  light  or  group  of  lights  on  a  handsome  bronze  standard. 


Coiirlcsv  of  XaJ tonal  fash  HeffUlcr  Company 
TuK  Same  Back  Yard  after  Beautifyinu 


The  unsightly  gas  lamps  with  their  flaring  jets  are  re|)lace(| 
by  a  frosted  globe  placed  on  a  handsome  standard. 

Billboards. — One  of  the  ugliest  features  of  our  eiti«'S 
and  countryside  is  the  billboard.  Merchants  must  ad\cr- 
tise  their  wares,  and  this  has  gi\en  ri.se  to  the  jxistiug  of 
adverti.sements  on  every  available  place.  A  fine.  <ild 
tree  with  a  great  board  nailed  to  it  adxcrtising  somebody's 
soap  seems  to  look  ashamed.     Y(»u  wish  to  enjoy  a  beautiful 


234 


COMMUNITY    CIVICS 


landscape  and  you  are  confronted  by  a  mammoth  advertising 
sign.  You  ride  along  a  beautiful  village  street,  and  you  are 
confronted  here  and  there  by  dilapidated  billboards.  Boys 
and  girls  often  add  to  the  unsightliness  by  marking  with 
chalk  or  pencil  on  the  already  hideous  boards.  So  great  a 
nuisance  has  this  method  of  advertising  become,  that  many 
towns  have  passed  ordinances  forbidding  the  erection  of  bill- 


CouTtaty  of  Forest  Service,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Tree-Lined  Avenues,  Tree-Ahched  Streets 


boards  within  the  limits  of  the  municipality  and  requiring 
the  removal  of  those  already  erected.  The  warning,  "  Post 
no  bills,"  is  often  seen  on  the  vacant  space  of  a  wall.  This 
has  been  placed  there  to  forbid  the  placing  of  any  posters 
on  its  surface.  The  disregarding  of  this  warning  is  punish- 
able by  law. 

Trees  and  their  uses.  —  It  is  pleasant  to  turn  from  the 
consideration  of  such  ugly  things  as  we  have  been  reading  of, 
to  one  of  more  beautv.     Ever^•  one  can  see  the  beauty  of  a 


Hl•;A^'r^    i\  'imiI':  local  commimi •^ 


'2:\: 


tree,  and  every  one  ean  enjoy  its  shade.  Any  cdnnnnnity 
wliieli  has  trees  may  be  sure  tliat  it  has  some  hcanty.  "  'I'rcc- 
lined  avenues,  tree-arehed  streets,  the  play  nf  li^^ht  and 
shadow  on  the  pavement,  the  serccnini:  of  the  sun's  ^dare 
upon  walk  and  window,  the  lo\-ely  ehroniele  of  the  season's 
proo;ress  as  it  is  written  on  the  tree  where  all  ean  read  it, 
are  factors  of  beauty  uniNcrsal   in  appeal."     ."^o  important 


Courtesy  of  FoTC' I 
"Be  Aye  .Sticki.n'  in  \  Bit  Tkee" 
Phmting  young  trees  on  the  Wasatrh  Xatiunal  Forest.  I'tali. 

are  these  factors  considered  in  st)me  eountries.  that  eiti/.ens 
are  forbidden  to  cut  down  a  tree  without  planting;  another 
in  its  place.  The  advice  \(\\o\\  by  an  old  Seoteh  laird  to  his 
son  was:  "Be  aye  [always]  stickin'  in  a  bit  tree.  The  tree 
will  be  growin'  when  ye  are  sleepin'."  The  old  Seotehman's 
advice  has  been  followed  by  many  societies  which  have  been 
formed  to  encourage  the  planting  t)f  trees.  Prizes  Imve  been 
offered  bv  many  of  these  societies  to  tho-e  who  i)Iant  tree>. 


236  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

or  the  trees  are  given  by  the  society  to  any  who  will  plant 
them.  Arbor  Day,  a  legal  holiday  in  many  states,  is  a  da}' 
set  apart  by  the  state  governments  for  "stickin'  in  a  bit  tree." 
It  ought  to  be  patriotically  observed  in  all  communities. 

Not  only  is  it  necessary  to  plant  trees,  but  it  is  necessary 
to  take  care  of  them  after  they  have  been  planted,  and  to 
protect  them  from  the  ravages  of  insects.  The  elm  trees 
of  many  towms  were  in  danger  of  being  destroyed  until  the 
local  and  state  authorities  began  to  take  care  of  them  and 
wage  a  ceaseless  war  on  the  beetles  which  were  killing  them. 
The  chestnut  blight  has  destroyed  thousands  of  chestnut 
trees,  and  the  officials  where  the  disease  is  raging  are  trying 
to  control  it.  The  caterpillar  ravaged  the  trees  of  many 
communities,  and  the  services  of  the  boys  and  girls  were 
enlisted.  The  local  governments  offered  prizes  to  the  ones 
who  would  destroy  the  greatest  number  of  the  pests,  and  so 
great  was  the  enthusiasm  of  the  children  that  the  worms  were 
destroyed  and  the  trees  saved.  Before  boys  and  girls  care- 
lessly hurt  a  tree,  they  should  think  of  the  words  of  the  great 
writer  quoted  under  the  frontispiece  of  this  book  :  "  What 
a  thought  it  was  when  God  thought  of  a  tree." 

There  are  other  w'ays  in  which  the  planting  of  trees  helps 
a  city  besides  making  it  beautiful.  Trees  not  only  cool  the 
air,  but  they  purify  it  by  absorbing  poisonous  gases  and  giving 
forth  oxygen.  They  tend  to  absorb  any  surplus  water  in 
the  soil  that  might  make  basements  damp.  They  are 
worth  actual  money  to  a  community  also,  for  people  remain 
longer  in  summer  in  the  towns  that  are  well  planted  with 
trees. 

Removal  of  the  tenements.  —  "When  a  city  begins  to  plan 
for  civic  beauty,  one  of  the  first  places  that  is  given  attention 
is  the  tenement  district  (see  Chapter  II).     Such  planning  by 


BEAUTY    IX    TIIK    LOCAL   (OMMl M'l'V  'Jli? 

the  sovcriiniont  lias  a  j,nvat  ellVct  u|)(»ii  hoys  and  i:\r\s.  A 
built-over  tenement  distriet  "fjives  the  box  sand  ^irls  aehanee 
to  work  ott"  their  enerjry  in  harmless  amiiMin*  iit  s.  renders  i  heir 
homes  more  pleasant,  and  helps  to  satisfy  \\w  lon^'in^  for 
bri<>;htness,  entertaiinnent,  and  fellowship,  withont  throwing 
them  into  temptation."  If  ahundanee  of  fresh  air  and  >nn- 
shine  is  let  into  livint,^  and  sleeping'  rooms,  many  of  the 
hardest  problems  of  a  city  will  be  solved.  The  jnvenile 
court  would  not  have  enou^di  business  to  keej)  it  open. 
Some  one  has  said  that  at  the  present  time  "if  the  tene- 
ments were  made  more  attractive,  there  would  be  more  of 
manliness,  there  would  be  purer  souls,  becau.se  there  would 
be  less  of  temptation  ;  there  would  be  stronger  minds  because 
there  would  be  stronger  bodies.  Out  of  the  e\il  conditions 
of  the  slum  grow  our  greatest  political  evils.  Here 
'  smoulders  the  fire  which  breaks  forth  in  revolution.'  " 

Solving  the  tenement  question.  In  I'.nmjie  again  we 
find  the  first  systematic  attem])ts  to  solve  the  ])roblem  (tf 
doing  away  with  the  tenement  and  yet  give  people  a 
beautiful  home  at  a  moderate  rental.  On  the  outer  rim  of 
many  cities  in  England,  model  towns  have  been  established, 
a  striking  example  of  which  is  the  model  town  at  Port  Sun- 
light. Here  are  model  hou.ses  and  gardens  at  a  moderate 
price.  More  recently  similar  attempts  ha\-e  been  made  in 
America,  and  such  commimities  are  f(tnnd  near  Tittsburg  and 
Detroit,  and  there  is  one  at  Dayton,  of  which  yon  have  read. 
This  movement  is  made  possible  b\  our  modern  means  of 
transportation.  Interurban  trolleys,  automobiles,  and  the 
fast  steam  and  electric  trains  have  given  hope  that  .some 
day  the  slum  may  be  entirely  banished.  Such  homes  as 
those  of  the  model  towns  are  based  on  the  recognition  of  the 
fact  that  the  laborer  is  a  better  workman  if  his  home  is  a 


238  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

pleasant  one.  If  his  surroundings  are  beautiful,  he  is  more 
of  a  man  and  less  of  a  machine,  and  therefore  a  better 
citizen. 

City  planning.  —  Many  cities  and  villages  are  making  defi- 
nite plans  for  their  improvement,  either  through  their  own 
local  governments  or  through  local  improvement  associations. 
Money  is  appropriated  for  the  purchase  and  destruction  of 
unsightly  buildings  and  for  the  erection  of  more  artistic 
ones  in  their  place.  Streets  leading  to  a  community  are 
made  clean,  and  good  pavements  are  laid,  so  that  the  entrance 
to  it  may  be  beautiful.  When  bridges  are  built,  some  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  their  artistic  side  as  well  as  to  their  usefulness. 
Statues  of  prominent  men,  or  monuments  in  commemoration 
of  some  historic  event  are  erected  either  by  popular  sub- 
scription or  by  appropriations  from  the  municipal  treasury. 

Not  only  must  communities  have  clean  streets,  trees,  park- 
ways, and  the  care  necessary  to  keep  them  in  fine  condition, 
but  it  must  take  care  that  nothing  is  allowed  to  spoil  the 
beauty  which  it  already  has.  It  must  go  farther  than  doing 
away  with  billboards  and  ugly  poles.  It  must  forbid  the 
use  of  soft  coal  by  engines  and  factories  which  send 
forth  a  grimy  black  smoke.  Many  communities  force  the 
owners  of  vacant  lots  to  keep  them  free  from  weeds,  which 
not  only  are  unsightly,  but  menace  the  beautiful  lawns  of 
those  who  live  near  by.  Ordinances  are  passed  to  do  away 
with  unnecessary  noises.  The  cries  of  street  xenders,  the 
loud  ringing  of  bells,  the  blowing  of  shrill  blasts  by  railroad 
engines,  the  squawking  and  hooting  of  automobiles  are  for- 
bidden. Any  one  who  permits  an  animal  to  mutilate  a  tree, 
or  who  does  so  himself,  is  punished.  Those  who  deface  or 
mark  any  public  or  private  building  are  punishable  by  fine 
or  imprisonment,  or  both. 


HKAl'I'N      IN    'IMIK     LOCAI,    < -(iM  \H   \  |■l•^ 


•j;{") 


Help  from  boys  and  girls.  —  I't-rluips  there  i>  notliiiiK'  in 
which  boys  and  ^^\vh  may  l)e  so  useful  tt»  a  e(»nnnuiiit\  as  in 
trying  to  make  it  beautiful.  lfe\cn  |)ei-M)n  takexare  net  t<» 
deface  a  city  and  to  inak(>  liis  own  home  beautiful,  then  the 
whole  community  is  beautified.  If  only  one  person  on  a 
street  makes  no  attempt  to  take  care  of  his  home,  that  home  is 


^t^  <«- 


A   L'HILU'8   (Jauuen 


t-u//<  11/  o/ .Suilii   F    Hnumi'.n 


noticeable  at  once.  "  Children  have  been  a  lar^e  factor  in 
many  communities  in  the  work  of  .school  and  home  ^janhMiinj; 
and  in  neighborhood  beaut ificat ion  of  various  kinds."  Chil- 
dren of  a  dozen  different  nationalities  decided  to  make  a 
park  in  one  of  the  mo.st  tliickly  .settled  parts  of  Pittsburg. 
A  dingy,  barren  hill  was  cho.sen.but  the  young  people  without 
aid  from  any  one,  laid  out  the  garden,  bricketl  the  walks, 
planted   the   flower  beds,   and    in   fact   did   ever\thin::  that 


240  roMMUxTTY  nvics 

was  done.  "  They  cleared  the  hillside  of  several  tons  of 
rubbish  and  carried  it  away  to  the  banks  of  the  river.  The 
mayor  of  the  city  loaned  the  boys  some  park  benches,  which 
were  placed  under  the  brush  and  the  sumac  bushes  which 
grew  on  the  hillside.  On  top  of  the  hill  the  boys  with  picks, 
shovels,  and  wheelbarrows  borrowed  from  the  park  depart- 
ment of  the  city  government,  cleared  and  levelled  a  large 
tract  of  ground  for  a  baseball  diamond."  The  boys  and 
girls  have  named  their  new  recreation  center,  "  Jitney 
Park." 

The  beautifying  of  a  city  has  been  likened  to  "a  fire  built 
upon  the  market  place,  where  every  one  may  light  his  torch." 
Each  will  be  induced  to  make  his  own  place  beautiful,  spurred 
on  by  the  efforts  of  others  and  the  encouragement  of  the  com- 
munity. The  motto  taken  by  one  of  the  many  societies  for 
the  artistic  improvement  of  communities  is  one  which  might 
be  adopted  by  the  boys  and  girls  of  any  town  :  "To  make  us 
love  our  city,  we  must  make  our  city  lovely." 

Questions  for  Investigation 

1.  Does  your  community  have  a  "Clean-up"  week?  Why  is  it  a 
good  idea  to  have  such  a  period  for  the  whole  community  ? 

2.  What  does  your  state  do  to  help  forward  the  work  of  planting 
trees  ?     What  officials  of  the  state  have  this  matter  in  charge  V 

3.  Wliy  should  a  community  insist  that  a  new  tree  should  be  put  in 
place  of  each  one  cut  down  ? 

4.  What  societies  are  there  in  your  community  which  foster  civic 
pride  and  civic  beauty  by  offering  prizes  for  gardens  or  beautiful 
places  ? 

5.  What  official  has  your  community  wlio  looks  after  the  tearing 
down  of  old  buildings  or  the  cleaning  up  of  empty  lots?  Mow  is  he 
chosen  ? 

6.  What  ordinance  has  your  community  concerning  the  care  of 
vacant  lots?  Is  this  ordinance  enforced?  Wiy  should  such  an  ordi- 
nance be  passed  ? 


BEAUTY    IX   TIIK    l.ocAI.   (■(^M^n•\•n'^■  211 

7.  What  power  lias  a  coinmimily  foiicrniiiiK  nvcrln-ad  win--,  if 
they  destroy  the  beauty  of  the  .streets? 

8.  Should  Niagara  Falls,  one  of  the  Ixinity  spots  of  the  world,  he 
turned  into  water  jKwer  to  f;ive  electricitv  to  niaiiv  eoinniunities? 
Why  V 

9.  Make  a  list  of  definite  ini|)rovenients  that  ynu  think  would  itu- 
prove  the  beauty  of  your  connnunity? 

10.  If  yoiu-  eonnnunity  has  a  water  front,  make  definite  sujjgestions 
for  its  imi)rovenient. 

11.  What  is  the  eondition  of  yoiu-  ba<k  yard  ?  Wliat  can  you  do  to 
improve  it  ? 

12.  What  natural  scenery  has  your  community?  Has  it  been 
harmed  in  any  way?  What  ran  be  done  to  restore  it  to  its  orif:inaI 
beauty  ? 

13.  What  does  your  eonnnunity  do  to  remove  aimoyanees  eauxd  i>y 
smoke,  noise,  or  other  things  which  destroy  its  beauty? 

14.  What  has  your  eonnnunity  done  to  remove  the  billlioanl  nui- 
sance?    What  can  you  do  to  help  in  this  matter? 

15.  What  is  the  actual  money  value  of  beauty  to  a  connrunity? 

16.  Are  there  marks  on  the  walls,  desks,  or  the  outside  of  your 
school  building?  Who  is  responsiiile  for  the  care  of  your  building? 
What  is  your  duty  as  a  citizen  in  this  matter? 

17.  Is  your  school  a  "benediction  of  beauty"  upon  the  eonununity  ? 
How  might  your  school  grounds  be  imi)ro\ed? 

18.  Have  a  "clean-up"  day.  Six  weeks  after  make  a  posHT  witli 
this  (piotation  : 

"How  nice  we  looked  six  weeks  ago! 
How  do  we  look  to-day?" 


CHAPTER   XVI 
THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  A   SMALL  COMMUNITY 

In  the  study  of  the  activities  which  go  on  about  us  and 
of  which  we  are  a  part,  you  must  have  noticed  that  reference 
was  constantly  made  to  government  and  different  officials 
of  government.  It  is  very  evident  that  all  the  inhabitants 
of  a  large  city,  such  as  New  York,  could  not  meet  together 
in  one  place  to  make  laws  for  the  guidance  of  their  com- 
munity ;  neither  could  the  inhabitants  of  a  small  town  come 
together  to  enforce  order  or  to  settle  judicial  disputes.  Con- 
sequently the  people  choose  certain  ones  of  their  number 
to  do  this  for  them.  These  officials  and  the  authority  given 
them,  by  which  they  make  rules  for  our  conduct  and  punish 
those  who  disobey  the  laws,  we  know  as  government.  In 
addition,  government  looks  after  the  activities  about  which 
we  have  studied.  This  government  we  speak  of  is  no  more 
the  city,  the  village,  the  state,  or  the  nation  "  than  the  heart 
or  the  lungs  of  an  animal,  are  the  animal.  The  government 
is  the  chief  set  of  organs  of  the  community,  the  agent  which 
carries  out  its  will." 

Functions  of  government.  —  We  have  found  out  that 
government  has  certain  things  to  do.  Woodrow  Wilson,  in 
his  book  The  State,  gives  a  long  list  of  these  functions  of 
government.  Among  those  that  he  mentions  are  protection, 
the  care  of  property  and  its  transfer,  the  definition  and  the 
punishment   of   crime,   the   determination   of  the   political 

242 


THE    GOVERNMENT    OV    A    SMAI.I.    COMMI'MTV     'Jll^ 


244  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

duties  and  privileges  of  citizens,  the  regulation  of  trade  and 
industry,  labor,  transportation  and  communication,  health, 
education,  and  care  of  the  poor  and  incapable.  In  addition 
to  these  there  are  many  other  functions  of  government. 

In  our  study  thus  far  we  have  found  that  government 
falls  readily  into  four  kinds,  local,  county,  state,  and  national. 
All  of  these  kinds  of  government  do  not  perform  all  the  func- 
tions mentioned  above,  but  all  of  them  do  perform  many. 
Some  duties  are  assigned  to  one  particular  form  of  government. 
For  example,  all  forms  protect  us  (see  Chapter  V),  and  look 
after  our  health  (see  Chapter  IV),  while  our  relations  with 
foreign  governments  are  looked  after  by  the  national  govern- 
ment alone  (see  Chapter  XXI).  ^Yhen  the  community  is  a 
small  one  there  is  no  need  for  many  officials  to  carry  on  the 
activities  of  government.  When  the  colonists  met  in  their 
town  meeting  they  delegated  their  powers  to  a  few  officials. 

The  town.  —  The  settlement  of  which  we  read  in  the  first, 
chapter  might  have  been  one  of  the  early  settlements  in  New 
England.  In  this  section  of  the  country  the  local  forms  of 
government  were  different,  as  we  shall  see,  from  those  which 
sprung  up  in  Virginia  or  New  York.  In  New  England  the 
local  unit  was  the  town.  For  several  reasons  the  settlers 
who  came  to  this  part  of  America  settled  close  together. 

(1)  They  usually  came  in  bands  of  men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren, all  of  whom  belonged  to  the  same  local  community 
in  England,  and  who  brought  with  them  their  local  minister. 
This  bond  led  them  to  settle  near  each  other  in  order  that 
they  might  have  the  same  church  and  listen  to  the  preaching 
of  the  same  pastor. 

(2)  People  settled  in  a  compact  community  for  protection 
from  the  Indians. 

(3)  The  soil  was  not  very  good,  and  the  farms  were  small ; 


THE    GOVERNMENT    ()V    A    SMALL    (OMMrNITV     24o 

therefore  the  settlers  were  iieur  iieiirlil)<»rs.  TIk.m-  wlm.lid 
not  ha\'e  furnis  en<;;i.ii;e(l  in  fisliinn;  ,,,•  i,,  conmicrcc.  whieh 
naturally  tenderl  to  keej)  the  settlers  to^^ether. 

For  these  reasons  there  were  many  little  settlements 
throughout  the  New  England  eolonies.  As  the  settlers 
came  to  America  for  political  as  well  as  religious  rncdoiii, 
it  was  quite  natural  that  each  one  should  wish  to  have  a 
part  in  the  government  and  business  of  the  settlement,  and  in 
regulating  the  local  affairs  of  the  eoinnnniiiy.  Afterward 
tliese  little  connnunities  handed  togetlu-r  into  larger  units. 

The  town  meeting.  —  The  men  of  the  settlement  usually 
held  at  least  one  meeting  a  year  to  attend  to  the  business  of 
the  town.  Different  customs  in  dill'erent  localities  gave  the 
right  to  vote  at  these  meetings.  In  some  only  church  mem- 
bers could  vote  ;  in  others  a  certain  amount  of  i)r(t])erty  was 
necessary.  At  this  meeting  all  the  alVairs  of  the  town  were 
regulated.  For  example,  in  one  of  the  old  town  records  we 
read,  "  The  men's  seats  in  the  body  of  the  meeting-house 
shall  be  enlarged  to  the  women's  seats,  and  the  space  be- 
tween Judge  Jamison's  heirs  and  Lieut.  Steam's  ])e\\  be 
divided  and  added  to  their  ])ews,  they  consenting  and  that 
the  doors  to  their  pews  be  made  to  come  out  in  the  hind 
alley,  and  that  m(Mi  and  women  l)e  ])laeed  in  each  of  these 
pews  by  the  committee  for  seating  the  meeting-house." 
Another  example  of  how  closely  the  affairs  of  the  town  were 
regulated  by  the  town  meeting,  is  this  law  found  in  the 
record  of  another  town  :  "  It  is  ordered  that  all  doggs.  for 
the  space  of  three  weeks  after  the  ])ublishinge  hereof  shall 
have  one  legg  tied  up.  ...  If  ;i  man  refuse  to  tye  up  his 
dogg's  legg,  and  he  be  fouiul  .scrai)ing  ui>  fish  in  the  come 
field,  the  owner  shall  pay  12.s-.  beside  whatever  damag»>  the 
doffff  doth."     The  modern  town  meeting,  though  its  law>  do 


246  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

not  touch  on  such  amusing  points  as  the  above,  attends  to 
all  the  local  legislation  that  is  necessary. 

Every  spring,  October  in  Connecticut,  the  inhabitants 
of  each  New  England  town,  except  in  cities,  meet  together 
to  transact  whatever  business  may  be  necessary  for  carrying 
on  local  affairs.  The  meeting  elects  officers  for  the  coming 
year,  it  decides  on  the  amount  of  money  needful  for  carrying 
on  the  business  of  the  town,  and  passes  whatever  regula- 
tions may  be  necessary  for  the  well-being  of  the  inhabitants. 
Among  the  laws  which  it  enacts  are  those  relating  to  schools, 
roads,  relief  of  the  poor,  and  whatever  regulations  may  be 
necessary  for  the  health  of  the  community. 

The  principal  officers  elected  are  the  selectmen,  numbering 
from  three  to  nine,  according  to  the  size  of  the  town  and 
the  business  to  be  looked  after.  Their  duty  is  to  carry  out 
the  laws  passed  by  the  town  meeting.  In  addition  to  the 
selectmen,  are  the  clerk,  who  keeps  the  records  of  the  town, 
the  treasurer,  who  takes  care  of  the  town's  money  and  pays 
out  whatever  is  necessary,  the  constables,  justices  of  the 
peace,  and  many  others.  So  many  officials  are  chosen  in 
some  towns  that  almost  every  one  may  look  forward  to  hold- 
ing office.  In  one  Massachusetts  town  of  eighty-two  in- 
habitants, there  are  eighteen  officials.  Many  of  these  minor 
officials  have  queer  titles,  such  as  hog  reeve,  fence  viewers, 
etc.,  which  have  come  down  from  colonial  times,  and  they 
serve  without  pay. 

This  form  of  government  is  the  most  truly  democratic 
of  any  that  we  have,  for  here  the  people  themselves  meet  to 
make  the  laws.  John  Eiske,  the  noted  American  historian, 
has  said,  "  It  has  one  advantage  over  all  other  kinds  of  gov- 
ernment, in  so  far  as  it  tends  to  make  every  man  feel  that  the 
business  of  government  is  part  of  his  own  business,  and  that 


THE    GOVERNMENT    OF    A    SMAM.    COMMrMTV     247 

where  he  has  a  stake  in  llic  iiiaii;iir«'iii«'iit  df  all'airs,  hi-  has 
also  a  voice."  Tlionias  .letlersoii  was  so  impressed  with  tlie 
\ahie  of  town  go\erninent  that  lie  wrote  that  "  they  have 
proved  themselves  the  wisest  invention  ever  devise<l  hy  the 
wit  of  man  for  the  perfect  exercise  of  self  ,-:(>\  crniiHiit  and  for 
its  preservation." 

The  officers  chosen  arc  directly  rcspoiisihlc  to  the  |»coplc 
who  choose  them.  At  the  cud  of  a  year,  for  tlic  town  meet- 
ing is  held  annnally  and  most  of  the  ollicials  are  chosen  for 
one  year,  any  unfaithfnl  public  servant  may  he  replaced 
by  a  new  one.  On  the  other  hand  those  who  serve  faith- 
fully may  be  kept  in  office.  There  are  records  of  some  towns 
which  show  the  names  of  officials  who  have  served  their 
fellow  citizens  for  thirty  and  even  for  forty  years. 

County  government.  — Let  us  turn  from  this  form  of  Iixal 
government  to  another  which  grew  up  in  \  irginia  and  the 
other  southern  colonies.  This  form  is  known  ;is  county 
government.  In  Virginia  the  conditions  of  .settlement  were 
much  different  from  those  in  New  England. 

(1)  The  settlers  who  came  here  foimd  the  soil  rich  and 
fitted  for  agriculture.  liecause  of  this  and  because  the  main 
crop  was  tobacco,  the  land  was  settled  in  large  ]ilantations, 
since  the  settlers  took  grants  of  many  acres. 

(2)  The  rivers  went  far  uj)  into  the  coimtr>-  and  were  so 
deep  as  to  makej  it  possible  for  a  plantation  owner  to  load 
his  produce  from  a  wharf  on  his  own  i)Iantation.  The 
ship  which  t(H)k  away  his  tobacco  brought  the  goods  that 
he  and  his  family  needed,  and  a  center  of  trade  was  not 
required. 

(3)  The  Indians  of  this  section  were  not  hostile  to  tin-  early 
settlers  as  they  were  in  New  Ejigland  ;  therefore  it  was  nut 
necessary  for  the  settlers  to  live  close  together. 


248  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

Because  of  these  conditions,  when  it  became  necessary 
for  some  unit  to  be  made  for  carrying  on  the  government 
of  any  locahty,  the  one  with  which  the  cok^iists  were  most 
famihar  in  old  England,  the  county,  was  chosen.  The 
country  was  divided  into  large  sections  similar  to  those  at 
home  and  the  same  name  of  county  was  given  them.  These 
divisions  became  the  unit  of  government  in  Mrginia  and 
other  southern  colonies  and  have  remained  so  until  to-day. 
When  these  colonies  became  states,  although  some  of  them 
tried  to  form  towns  by  law,  yet  the  county  remained  about 
the  same  as  it  was  during  colonial  times,  and  the  officials 
chosen  bear  the  colonial  titles  as  those  in  New  England  did. 

Instead  of  all  the  people  meeting  together  to  perform  the 
duties  of  carrying  on  the  business  of  the  locality,  certain 
ones  are  elected  by  the  people  of  the  county  to  do  it.  Mr. 
Fiske  says,  "  An  assembly  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  a  county 
for  the  purpose  of  local  government  is  out  of  the  question. 
There  must  be  representative  government,  and  for  this 
purpose  the  county  system  has  furnished  the  needful  machin- 
ery." "  There  are  many  points  which  can  be  much  better 
decided  in  small  representative  bodies  than-  in  large  mis- 
cellaneous meetings." 

The  board  of  supervisors.  —  These  chosen  representatives 
are  called  by  different  names  in  different  states,  the  board 
of  supervisors,  the  county  board,  or  the  county  commissioners. 
Their  number  varies  in  different  states,  as  does  the  manner 
of  choosing  them.  In  general  the  duties  of  this  body  are 
to  take  care  of  the  county  buildings  such  as  the  courthouse, 
jail,  hospital,  poorhouse,  etc.  It  makes  the  laws  for  the 
county  and  appoints  some  of  the  officials.  In  some  states 
this  body  has  charge  of  the  place  where  votes  are  cast  and 
attends  to  the  printing  of  the  ballots  for  the  elections.     The 


THE    GOVERNMENT    OF    A    SMALL    COMMrNITV     L' U) 

chief  difference  between  the  hoard  elected  1)\  the  (•(.niitv 
and  the  selectmen  chosen  by  the  \e\v  Kii^,daM(l  town  nieetiiij,' 
is  that  the  county  board  has  more  j)o\ver  than  the  select- 
men, as  they  only  carry  out  the  wishes  of  the  people  as  ex- 
pressed at  the  town  meeting,  while  the  board  may  do  tliiii;,'s 
on  its  own  initiatiN'e. 

Executive  officers  of  the  county.  —  The  chief  executive 
officer  of  the  county  is  the  sheriff.  Every  county  in  the 
United  States  has  a  sheriff  elected  by  the  peo|)le  of  tiie 
county,  except  in  Rhode  Island,  where  he  is  chosen  b\-  the 
legislature.  He  has  charge  of  the  county  jail  and  it>  in- 
mates. He  has  more  power  tlian  other  county  officials,  in 
that  he  is  able  to  call  out  the  po,s.sc  runiitdtu.s.  The  jjosse 
includes  all  able-bodied  men  in  the  county,  who  are  called 
upon  to  serve  in  case  of  rioting  or  other  disorder  in  the 
county.  The  term  for  which  the  sheriff  is  chosen  is  two 
years  in  a  majority  of  the  states,  and  in  some  he  is  not 
allowed  reelection  for  a  term  immediately  following. 

One  of  the  interesting  duti(>s  of  one  of  the  Ma>saehusetts 
sheriffs,  handed  down  from  colonial  times,  is  to  precede  the 
procession  of  graduates  and  underclassmen  at  commence- 
ment at  Williams  College.  Clad  in  his  high  liat  ami  "swallow- 
tail" coat,  and  bearing  his  wand  of  office,  lie  is  a  \-er\  impos- 
ing figure. 

In  most  states  the  comities  \\:\\v  a  comity  treasurer  who 
takes  care  of  the  money  of  the  county,  as  the  town  treasurer 
takes  care  of  the  money  of  the  town.  Many  have  as.sessors 
to  fix  the  value  of  the  property  of  the  comity  that  taxes  may 
be  levied.  Some  have  coroners  who  investigate  cases  of 
sudden  dcatli  wliere  crime  may  f)c  in\(>l\-ed.  ami  if  necessjiry 
hold  the  accused  for  trial.  Tli(>  judicial  affairs  of  tlu'  county 
are  in  the  hands  of  a  countv  judge.     In  some  states  tiiere  is 


250  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

another  judge,  called  by  different  titles  in  different  counties, 
who  looks  after  the  estates  of  deceased  persons. 

Powers  of  the  county.  —  Both  town  and  county  are 
divisions  of  the  state  for  the  easy  administration  of  state 
laws  and  for  putting  into  effect  whatever  local  laws  the 
state  permits  them  to  pass.  The  powers  of  the  county  have 
been  summed  up  as  follows :  "In  most  states  it  is  the  duty 
of  the  county  to  preserve  peace ;  administer  justice ;  dis- 
tribute the  property  of  deceased  persons ;  register  titles  to 
land  ;  maintain  schools ;  build,  repair,  and  maintain  roads 
and  bridges ;  care  for  the  poor ;  collect  local,  county,  and 
state  taxes,  and  expend  the  county  portion  of  these  taxes  in 
the  performance  of  the  county  functions  just  enumerated." 

The  New  England  county  is  not  of  great  importance.  It 
is  simply  a  district  for  the  administration  of  justice,  since  all 
other  local  governing  duties  are  performed  by  the  towns. 

The  compromise  type  of  local  government.  —  In  addition 
to  the  town  and  the  county  systems  of  local  government, 
there  is  a  third  form,  a  combination  of  the  two.  This  is 
known  as  the  mixed  or  compromise  type  of  local  govern- 
ment. It  is  found  particularly  in  New  York  and  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  in  many  western  states  which  have  been  settled 
by  people  from  the  east.  How  the  type  arose  will  be 
readily  understood  from  what  took  place  in  New  York. 
Settlements  sprang  up  here  as  in  New  England.  However, 
in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  in  order  to  carry 
out  the  laws  of  the  colony  better,  it  became  necessary  to 
divide  the  colony  into  ten  counties.  One  man,  known  as  a 
supervisor,  was  chosen  from  each  town  to  meet  with  the 
representatives  from  the  other  towns  in  the  county  to  super- 
vise the  business  of  the  new  division.  To-day  a  man  is 
chosen  from  each  town,  and  if  there  is  a  city  within  the 


THE    GOVERNMEXT   OF   A    SMALL   COMMUNI'IA      'jni 

l)()Uii<l;irics  of  the  coiiiity,  one  from  cacli  ward  of  the  city. 
These  constitute  the  lioard  of  supervisors.  Tlic  towns  some- 
times still  hold  meetin«i:s  as  they  do  in  New  Knj^jaiid  to  trans- 
act the  town  business,  hut  the  hoard  of  supervisors  also 
has  control  of  some  matters  pertaining  to  the  towns. 

In  Pennsylvania  this  system  dilfers  from  that  of  New 
York,  for  the  representatives  are  chosen  from  the  count \  as 
a  whole,  instead  of  one  from  each  town.  The  rcpresentativ«'s 
are  three  in  number,  and  are  known  as  the  "  bnard  of  com- 
missioners." Their  duties  are  similar  to  those  of  the  >uj»er- 
visors  in  New  York. 

Powers  of  local  government.  The  jxiwers  which  are 
granted  to  the  different  forms  of  local  government,  though 
they  are  not  the  same  in  all  states,  have  licen  sununed  uj)  as 
follows : 

"(1)  it  preserves  the  peace  and  ^ood  or(hi-  of  ihe  com- 
munity ; 

(2)  it  cares  for  the  public  health  ; 

(3)  it  supports  the  public  schools  ; 

(4)  it  helps  the  poor  and  unfortunate  ; 

(5)  it  assesses  and  collects  taxes  ; 

(6)  it  builds  and  repairs  roads  ; 

(7)  it  establishes  and  supports  courts  of  lower  grades." 
The  duty  of  the  citizen.  —  Tt  is  t!ie  iluty  of  cNcry  good 

citizen  to  take  a  part  in  local  government  by  voting  or  by 
holding  office.  In  previous  chapters  we  have  studied  the 
many  things  which  go  to  make  up  a  good  citi/en.  Interest 
in  local  affairs  is,  perhaps,  the  most  imp<)rtant  of  tiu-m  all. 
The  questi(ms  to  be  discussed  at  the  amuial  meeting  should 
be  studied  carefuJlx-,  and  tlic  caniiiilates  to  Ite  voteil  fur 
should  be  investigated,  so  that  one  may  vote  intelligent l\. 
If  a  citizen  is  elected  to  office,  no  matter  how  unimportant. 


252  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

he  should  administer  it  to  the  best  of  his  abiHty.  Local 
government  is  the  great  training  ground  for  those  who  hold 
larger  offices ;  he  who  does  not  think  his  small  office  of 
sufficient  importance  to  be  administered  efficiently,  will  not 
serve  his  fellow  citizens  well  in  a  larger  capacity.  That 
local  unit  is  the  best  governed  where  all  the  people  are 
interested  in  the  government  of  their  community,  and  do 
their  share  in  voting  and  holding  office. 

How  to  get  public  work  well  done.  —  When  officials  do 
not  do  well  the  work  for  which  they  are  chosen,  the  citizens 
are  at  fault  if  they  permit  such  officials  to  remain  in  office. 
In  a  syllabus  published  by  the  state  of  Pennsylvania  are  the 
following  suggestions  for  the  proper  accomplishment  of 
public  work : 

",1.  Legislation  should  be  confined  to  general  principles, 
and  the  details  of  the  work  shoukl  be  worked  out  by  ex])ert 
administrators. 

2.  There  should  be  a  budget  system  in  public  finance. 

3.  Public  service  should  be  dignified  so  that  good  men  will 
be  attracted  into  it.  Strict  civil  service  rules  should  be  en- 
forced. A  desire  for  able  officials,  regardless  of  party  or 
factional  interests,  should  be  promoted. 

4.  The  '  short  ballot '  principle  should  be  introduced.  It 
should  be  clearly  shown  that  this  is  not  inconsistent  with 
democracy,  since  for  some  positions,  better  men  can  be 
obtained  l)y  appointment  than  by  election. 

5.  The  relation  between  cities  and  the  state  should  be 
fixed  carefully.  In  so  far  as  is  consistent  with  good  govern- 
ment, cities  should  be  granted  '  home  rule.'  "  ^ 

^  Since  this  chapter  and  the  following  chapter  are  so  closely  related, 
the  questions  for  investigation  for  both  have  been  placed  at  the  end  of 
Chapter  XVII. 


niAITKlJ    X\II 
THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  A  LARGER  COMMUNITY 

When  a  community  finds  itself  face  to  face  with  new- 
problems, —  street  li^ditinf,%  police  protection,  sidewalks, 
street  cleaning,  etc.,  it  has  to  have  special  officials  to  look 
after  these  activities.  Such  questions  d(»  not,  (»f  course, 
concern  the  whole  township  or  the  county  in  which  the 
village  is  located,  so  very  often  the  little  (•(unnnniity  m»es 
through  a  process  called  "  incor])()rati()ii."'  "  Iiuorixiration 
means  created  into  a  legal  body  by  the  State.  This  body 
may  then  bring  suit  in  court,  borrow  money,  or  i-nter 
contracts  as  a  person  may  do." 

Incorporation. — There  are  different  ways  in  which  a 
village  may  become  incorporated.  Sometimes  it  is  done 
by  the  State  on  application  by  a  community,  sometimes  by  a 
petition  to  the  i)roper  officer.  In  most  states  such  incorpora- 
tion must  be  voted  on  by  the  people  of  the  conmnmity.  .\s 
soon  as  the  process  is  complete,  officials  are  chosen  and  the 
village  is  in  a  position  to  better  administer  its  own  local 
affairs. 

Although  the  community  has  received  the  special  per- 
mission to  look  after  its  own  affairs,  it  is  yet  a  part  of  the 
township  or  of  the  county  or  of  both,  ;uid  ;i-  -udi  it  pays  its 
share  of  the  taxes  of  the  larger  unit,  helps  to  elect  its  officials, 
and  in  no  w^iy  loses  its  share  in  the  go\erning  jjower 
which  the  county  or  townshij)  has.     Incorporated  villuges 

253 


254  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

vary  in  size,  but  are  always  small,  usually  with  not  less  than 
two  or  three  hundred  inhabitants.  When  the  population 
increases,  the  village  usually  incorporates  itself  into  a  city, 
as  we  shall  see  later. 

An  incorporated  village.  —  The  citizens  of  a  village  or 
town,  or  borough  as  it  is  called  outside  of  New  England, 
elect  a  chief  executive  officer  known  as  a  president  or  mayor. 
This  official  enforces  the  ordinances  passed  by  the  legislative 
branch  of  the  government,  usually  appoints  some  of  the 
officials,  and  in  some  communities  acts  as  a  judicial  officer. 

Other  executive  officers  of  a  village  are :  a  treasurer;  officials 
known  in  different  states  as  constables,  town  marshals  or 
bailiff's,  who  preserve  order  and  arrest  offenders  against 
the  law  ;  a  clerk,  and  sometimes  assessors ;  an  official  to  take 
care  of  the  streets ;  and  in  many  states,  school  officials. 

The  legislative  branch  of  the  government,  known  as  the 
council,  or  the  board  of  trustees,  is  elected  by  the  people 
of  the  village.  This  board  has  the  power  to  fix  the  tax  rate 
(see  Chapter  XXIII),  and  its  other  duties  vary  in  different 
states.  Usually  it  may  pass  ordinances  concerning  the  health 
of  the  community,  protection  from  fire  and  other  dangers, 
the  streets  and  their  care,  the  water  supply  and  the  lighting 
of  the  streets. 

The  judicial  duties  of  the  village  are  performed  by  officers 
either  chosen  by  the  people  of  the  community  or  appointed  by 
the  village  board.  Before  these  justices  are  brought  minor 
offenders,  who  either  receive  tlieir  sentence  in  this  court, 
or  are  held  for  a  higher  court.  In  these  courts  are  also  tried 
minor  civil  cases  where  the  amount  involved  is  not  large. 

A  city  is  simply  a  larger  village,  whose  officials  have  wider 
duties,  greater  power,  and  are  more  in  number,  since  city 
.affairs  carry  >>^ith  them  a  wider  range  of  authority. 


GOVERNMENT   OF   A    I..\|{OKIv'   COMMUNITY     255 

How  villages  become  cities.-  Il  iiii;:lii  he  wi  II  f..r  ns 
at  tills  point  to  find  out  tlie  reasons  wliy  sonu-  viihi^fs  lu-- 
come  great  cities,  while  others  remain  with  small  popula- 
tion. Let  us  go  again  to  our  village  aix.ut  wliich  wv  li;i\f 
read  so  much.  The  river  and  the  water  jxiucr  that 
furnished  the  power  for  the  mill,  about  which  the  settlement 
grew  up,  led  in  later  years  to  the  buihling  of  facto- 
ries and  commercial  establishments.  Many  i)eoi)Ic  came 
here  to  obtain  work,  and  the  number  of  homes  increased 
rapidly.  The  easy  means  of  transportation  aJlorded  l)\-  the 
river  led  to  the  founding  of  great  connnerciaj  <'nter- 
prises  which  needed  many  workers.  In  addition.  th<'  rail- 
roads and  other  means  of  transi)ortation  led  t(»  the  e>tab- 
lishment  of  many  new  homes. 

Other  cities  have  had  adih-d  reasons  for  growth.  South 
of  our  village  the  capital  of  the  state  was  establi>lu'd.  This 
was  one  of  the  rea.sons  for  its  rapid  growth.  The  great 
city  of  Pittsburg  grew  rapidly  from  a  little  trading  post  and 
fort  when  coal  and  iron  were  diseoxcred  near  it.  It'  mines 
are  discovered,  towns  spring  up  near  them  and  grow  rajjidly. 
If  the  mines  fail,  the  cities  are  deserted.  In  one  of  the 
western  states  a  city  of  over  ten  thousand  inhabitants  has 
become  a  village  of  hardly  two  thousand  because  of  the  fail- 
ure of  the  mine  which  brought  about  its  growth.  Some 
cities  grow  because  they  are  the  center  of  social  life. 
Atlantic  City  and  Palm  lieach  arc  c\aini)Ies  of  such  cities. 

For  all  these  reasons  pojmlation  becomes  so  great  in  many 
communities  that  the  town  meeting  and  \  illage  elections 
are  no  longer  able  to  take  care  ol"  the  man>  activities  which 
spring  uj).  As  the  people  had  incorporated  the  xillai:''. 
they  now  begin  to  think  of  incorporating  the  conmninii\ 
into  a  city. 


256 


COMMUNITY    CIVICS 


«  The  city  charter.  —  No  matter  in  what  way  they  grow, 
cities  are  all  similar,  in  that,  like  the  incorporated  villages, 
"  they  are  public  corporations  chartered  under  state  laws." 
That  is,  in  order  to  become  a  city,  the  community  must 
receive  from  the  state  legislature  a  charter  which  grants  it 


Courtesy  of  the  War  iJiparl/iunt 

Our  Largest  Community 

The  machinery  of  government  of  such  a  community  is  very  complicated. 
What  are  some  of  the  problems  peculiar  to  this  community  which  must  be 
solved  ? 

permission  to  have  a  city  government.  If  we  remember 
our  history,  we  know  that  when  a  body  of  colonists 
wished  to  settle  in  America,  it  received  a  charter  from  the 
king.  This  document  usually  specified  the  officers  to  be 
chosen  and  the  boundaries  of  the  colony;  it  told  in  detail  what 
the  colonists  were  permitted  to  do  and  what  was  forbidden 


GOVERNMENT    OF   A    I.AKCKIv'    CoMMrxiTV     LV)? 

tlu'iii.  'I'lic  clKirtcr  wliici)  ;i  city  receives  is  vers  siiiiilar. 
It  contains  the  boundaries  of  the  city,  its  name,  the  ollieials 
which  it  is  to  have  and  their  (hities,  and  in  detail  >|)eeiii«'s 
the  things  which  the  city  may  or  ma,\  imt  dn.  This  charter 
is  nn(h'r  full  control  of  the  hiw-niakiiii:  hody  of  the  >tate,  so 
much  so,  in  fact,  that  there  has  heen  a  ;,M'eat  deal  of  mis- 
government  in  cities  because  of  the  interference  of  the  state 
legislatures  with  city  all'airs.  Usually  a  special  charter  is 
granted  to  each  community,  but  in  New  York  and  a  few 
other  states,  the  cities  are  divided  into  classes,  and  a  general 
charter  is  provided  for  each  class. 

"Home  rule."  —  So  many  ha\-e  been  the  e\ils  comiected 
with  the  granting  of  city  charters  and  their  manipulati<»n  by 
shameless  ])oliticians,  that  in  recent  years  a  nioxcment  has 
been  started  to  grant  to  cities  the  right  <  f  "  home  rule." 
In  about  a  dozen  of  the  states  the  state  constitution  pro- 
vides that  any  community  which  wishes  to  become  a  city, 
may  draw  up  or  change  its  own  charter.  These  charters 
are  .-.ubject,  however,  to  the  general  laws  of  the  >tate  in  which 
the  new  city  is  located. 

The  board  of  aldermen.  Tlie  hgislati\f  branch  i<{  the 
city  government  is  known  as  the  conunon  cnmicil  or  boani 
of  aldermen.  In  a  few  cities  there  are  two  bodit-s  in  the 
legislative  department,  but  this  system  is  rapidly  giving 
place  to  the  single  house.  In  order  to  obtain  e(|ual  repre- 
sentation for  all  i)arts  of  th;-  cit\ ,  it  i-  «li\  i<lc(|  into  sections 
called  wards.  These  wards  are  usually  .somewhat  etjual  in 
population.  In  the  majority  of  cities,  one  representative 
is  elected  from  each  ward,  an<l  all  the  nieniber>  meet  to- 
gether as  the  council  <>r  board  of  aldermen.  In  some  cities, 
two  or  more  are  chosen  from  each  ward,  and  in  a  few  the 
aldermen  are  chosen  fnmi  the  city  as  a  whole  without  n-fer- 


258  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

ence  to  ward  lines.  The  members  of  the  council  serve  for 
one  or  two  years,  usually  with  a  small  salary. 

This  body  has  very  definite  powers  given  it  by  the  charter 
and  can  enact  only  such  laws  as  the  charter  permits.  One 
of  its  most  important  duties  is  to  pass  laws  for  the  "  health, 
comfort,  and  protection  of  society."  These  include  laws  for 
protection  from  fire,  laws  regarding  the  police  and  their 
duties,  laws  pertaining  to  the  streets,  street-cleaning,  and 
kindred  subjects.  IMany  such  laws  have  been  touched  upon 
in  previous  chapters  of  this  book.  It  also  has  the  power 
of  levying  taxes  for  the  payment  of  the  expenses  of  the 
municipality.  In  many  cities,  each  year  the  heads  of  the 
various  departments  of  city  government  prepare  a  list  of 
expenses  for  the  coming  year.  In  a  few,  a  board  of  city 
officials,  known  as  the  board  of  estimate  and  apportionment, 
of  which  the  chief  executive  is  a  member,  go  carefully  into 
each  item  of  expense  which  is  to  be  incurred.  When  the 
total  amount  of  money  to  be  raised  for  various  purposes  is 
fixed,  tliis  budget  is  sent  to  the  council,  which  may  further 
review  it  and  then  pass  the  necessary  appropriation  for  it. 
A  tax  is  then  levied  upon  city  property  to  meet  this  amount. 

The  council  has  other  important  duties.  One  is  the  grant- 
ing of  franchises.  If  a  transportation  company,  gas  or 
water  corporation  wishes  to  use  the  city  streets,  or  to  do 
business  in  the  city,  the  council  gives  permission.  This  is 
called  granting  a  franchise.  The  council  may  also  levy 
special  assessments  for  the  improvement  of  city  property, 
such  as  the  paving  of  streets  or  the  laying  of  sewers.  In 
such  a  case  the  city  pays  part  of  the  expense,  and  the  re- 
mainder is  paid  for  by  the  property  owners  who  are  most 
benefited.  The  council  grants  licenses  to  certain  kinds 
of  business  which  need  to  be  kept    somewhat   under  city 


GOVERXMEXT    OF    A    LAI{(;i;i{    ("OMMCXitv     250 

control,  —  pawn  brokers,  ni»)\  in^^  pictiiic  shows,  and  tli<likc. 
The  council  may  buy  proju-rtN'  ami  niaUc  contracts;  it  lias 
control  of  the  land  owned  by  the  city  and  makes  rcf^nlat ions 
for  its  care.  All  these  i)owcrs  are  ^'iveii  to  it  by  the  citv 
charter. 

The  mayor.  - 'r he  chief  executive  ofhcer  of  the  city  is 
the  mayor.  He  is  elected  by  the  judpje  in  nearly  ail  cities 
for  a  term  of  office  of  frmn  one  to  four  ye:ir>.  In  .lersev 
City  the  term  is  five  years.  The  usual  term  is  tw«.  years, 
but  in  large  cities,  New  York,  I'hiladelphia.  Chicago, 
and  Boston,  the  term  is  four  years  sc)  that  fre(|uent 
elections  may  not  disturb  municijjal  affairs.  IIi>  duties 
are  .similar  to  those  of  the  chief  executive  officer  of  a  \  illage, 
but  he  has  greater  powers.  He  may  appoint  or  remove, 
if  necessary,  many  of  the  city  officials,  lie  lias  power  to  see 
that  the  law  is  obeyed,  and  like  the  sheriff  of  the  county, 
he  may  ask  the  governor  of  the  state  for  the  aid  of  the  militia 
in  suppressing  disorder.  In  many  cities  he  keeps  close  watch 
of  the  finances,  investigating  the  annual  l)udget  of  expenses. 
He  is  the  social  rej)resentative  of  the  city,  welcoming  dis- 
tinguished guests  or  delegates  to  conventions  which  may 
make  the  city  their  meeting-place.  In  our  earher  hi-tory 
the  mayor  did  not  have  the  j)owcr  of  \etoing  onlinances 
passed  by  the  legislative  part  of  the  city  government,  but 
in  recent  years  most  city  go\-erninents  grant  to  their  <hief 
executive  this  power,  together  with  large  p(i\\(r>  nf  appoint- 
ment and  removal  of  officials.  Because  (»f  this  the  mayor  i^ 
held  responsible  for  the  success  or  failure  of  his  administra- 
tion. 

Other  officers  of  the  city.  —  Tn  most  cities  the  financial 
officers,  the  city  tri-asurer  and  .sometimes  an  official  known 
as  the  comptroller,  are  elected  at  the  siime  time  as  the  mayor. 


260  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

Where  there  are  two  financial  ofiieials  the  accounts  of  one 
are  a  check  on  those  of  the  other,  so  that  the  city's  money 
is  doubly  guarded.  Boards  of  education  are  sometimes 
elective  also.  The  great  body  of  officials  are  appointed  by 
the  elective  officials.  They  are  so  many  (70,000  in  New 
York  City)  and  their  duties  are  so  varied  that  n  order  to 
understand  one's  own  city  thoroughly  it  will  be  necessary 
for  each  student  to  study  it  in  detail. 

Judicial  power.  —  The  judicial  power  in  the  cities  is  usually 
placed  in  the  hands  of  one  or  more  police  judges,  elected  by 
the  people  of  the  city.  Their  powers  may  be  compared  with 
those  of  the  justice  of  the  peace  of  a  town,  village,  or  county. 
Sometimes  additional  judges  are  chosen  who  hear  civil  cases 
only,  that  is,  cases  arising  between  landlord  and  tenant, 
and  other  petty  cases  where  the  stake  is  small. 

Within  recent  years  there  have  been  established  in  many 
cities  what  are  known  as  "  juvenile  courts,"  already  described 
(Chapter  X).  "  ^Nlost  fundamental  of  all  the  problems  with 
which  the  courts  have  to  deal,  is  the  problem  of  the  juvenile 
offender.  Boy  and  girl  delinquents,  if  left  to  themselves, 
fall  naturally  into  the  careers  which  open  to  them  through 
petty  first  offenses."  "  There  presides  over  this  court  a 
judge  who  gives  his  w^hole  time  and  attention  to  the  admin- 
istration of  justice  to  the  children  who  are  brought  before 
him  for  the  violation  of  one  or  another  of  the  laws.  In  the 
children's  court,  the  administration  of  justice  does  not  mean 
simply  the  doling  out  of  punishments.  It  means  that  the 
judge  uses  the  methods  that  seem  best  suited  to  the  help- 
ing of  each  boy  and  girl  who  comes  before  him.  His  aim 
is  to  prescribe  something  for  each  particular  child  which 
will  help  to  make  him  a  responsible  member  of  society." 
When  the  home  is  not  a  good  one  the  court  may  take  the 


GOVERNMENT    OF  A    l.AKdKK    CoMMrxiTV     2(il 

child  from  it  and  ])lacc  him  wlinc  he  may  he  iiiidt-r  ^mul 
iiiHueiiccs. 

Evil  conditions  in  cities.  — Tlio  form  of  c-ity  K<>vfrnnKMit 
we  ha\t'  hc'cii  dis(ussiii<f,  tlic  '"  mayor-foiinc-il  type  "  as  it 
is  known,  has  <,dvcn  rise  to  many  vvW  conditions.  Wlim 
our  earlier  cities  were  chartered,  that  is,  our  carhtr  culonial 
cities,  they  were  patterned  after  the  Enjjhsh  chartered  towns, 
rnfortunately  the  En<rhsh  towns  were  hadly  irovcrned  in 
those  days,  and  the  resuh  was  that  the  had  .l'"\  trnnicnt 
was  transj)hinted  to  America.  TncU'r  this  particular  f<irni 
of  government,  "  graft  "  is  easy  ;  if  the  memhcrs  of  the  city 
council  and  other  city  officials  ari'  inclined  to  he  dishonest,  it 
is  difficult  to  detect  it  because  of  the  large  mimiier  of  officials. 
The  rise  of  the  city  "  boss  "  is  easy,  for  the  tendi-ney  has 
been  for  men  of  education  and  business  to  refuse  to  take 
office,  and  a  class  of  professional  i)olitieiaiis  has  arisen  that 
makes  its  living  from  holding  oHice.  Responsibility  is  so 
scattered  because  of  the  great  number  of  oflices  that  the  dis- 
honest official  is  seldom  brought  to  l)ook.  "  What  i>  every- 
body's business  is  nobody's  business,"  is  a  very  true  sjiying 
when  applied  to  city  corruption  anfl  its  punishment. 

New  forms  of  city  government.  —  During  recent  years 
the  tendency  has  been  to  center  the  responsii)ility  of  city 
government.  Instead  of  the  old  aphorism,  "  Don't  |)ut 
all  your  eggs  in  one  basket,"  the  modern  way  of  saying  it  is, 
"  Put  all  your  eggs  in  one  basket,  and  watch  that  ha.Hkct." 
When  in  1000  the  city  of  Galveston  was  partly  destroyed 
by  a  tidal  wave,  the  old  form  of  city  go\-ernment,  the  mayor- 
council  ty])e,  completelx'  broke  down.  It  did  not  seem  able 
to  bring  order  out  of  the  chaiK,  nor  did  it  ^eem  to  he  able 
to  put  the  city  in  a  position  where  the  terrible  catastrophe 
might  not  be  repeated.     To  di.scuss  a  remedy  for  the  existing 


262  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

state  of  affairs,  a  committee  of  citizens  came  together  and 
prepared  what  has  become  known  as  the  commission  form  of 
government.  The  charter  was  granted  by  the  state  of 
Texas  and  went  into  effect  in  1901.  This  form  has  since 
been  adopted  by  many  cities. 

Under  this  form  of  government,  the  rule  of  the  city  is 
placed  in  the  hands  of  a  commission  of  three  to  seven 
members.  This  is  the  number  common  in  most  of  the 
municipahties  which  have  adopted  commission  government, 
though  in  some  the  commissioners  number  ten.  These  men 
are  elected  by  the  voters  of  the  city  irrespective  of  wards 
or  political  parties,  usually  for  two  years,  and  at  a  small 
salary. 

The  mayor-president  is  one  of  the  commissioners  chosen 
from  their  number  by  his  associates,  or  is  the  one  who  re- 
ceived the  greatest  number  of  votes  at  the  election.  He  has  a 
slightly  larger  salary  than  the  others  because  of  his  added 
responsibility,  and  he  is  expected  to  give  more  of  his  time 
to  the  business  of  the  city.  This  commission  passes  the  city 
ordinances,  grants  franchises,  appoints  officials,  raises  money, 
and  in  fact  performs  all  the  duties  of  a  board  of  aldermen  or 
council.  In  addition,  the  city  departments,  except  the 
department  of  education,  are  supervised  by  these  com- 
missioners. There  are  usually  as  many  departments  as 
there  are  commissioners,  the  most  common  divisions  being 
those  of  finance  and  revenue,  waterworks  and  sewage,  police 
and  fire  protection,  and  streets  and  public  property.  A 
special  election  is  held  for  the  choosing  of  a  school  board, 
and  both  it  and  the  city  judges  are  independent  of  the  com- 
mission. 

The  "  Galveston  "  plan,  as  it  is  known,  was  added  to  in 
1907  by  the  city  of  Des  Moines,  Iowa.     Besides  the  election 


GOVERNMENT    OF    A    l.AI{(;  Ki;    (•().M.^^•^•|T^      L'O.'i 

of  the  commissioners,  ]  )cs  Moines  picscrihcs  a  iKui-partisiii 
election,  tiie  initiative,  tin'  ntVrciKlurii,  aii«l  the  ncali.  A 
non-partisan  election  is  condiutcd  as  follows  :  "•  Aii\  i»crson 
may  have  his  name  placed  upon  the  primary  hallot  hy  pre- 
senting a  petition  coiitaininti;  t\vcnt\-fi\  c  naiiic^.  Tlic 
names  of  the  candidates  are  arranged  al|)lial)(ti(ally  with 
no  indications  of  party.  The  ten  hij^diest  are  jjlaccd  upon  the 
ballot  for  the  re<,ndar  election  in  the  same  manner,  and  the 
five  highest  are  elected." 

The  referendum  provides  that  at  the  demand  of  a  certain 
percentage  of  the  voters,  a  law  passed  hy  the  connnissioners 
must  be  submitted  to  i)(>|)iilar  vote. 

The  initiative  gives  the  peojjle  the  right  of  propc.sing 
city  ordinances  and  of  having  them  voted  on  at  a  .s])ecial 
or  regular  election. 

The  recall  provides  that  the  voters  may  niiiovc  any 
of  the  commissioners  from  office  before  the  v\u\  «tf  his 
term,  by  calling  a  special  meeting  of  the  voters  for  tiiat 
})urpose. 

Those  in  favor  of  a  conunission  form  of  go\-ernment  say 
that  (1)  it  tends  to  place  the  governing  j)ower  in  fewer  liainl-. 
and  therefore  it  centers  responsibility  ;  (2)  it  secures  proinjit- 
ness  in  carrying  on  the  city's  business  because  of  this  small 
number  of  officials;  (o)  the  voters  c;in  cast  their  l)allots 
more  intelligently  for  a  few  than  for  a  large  number  of 
officials. 

The  "city  manager"  plan  goes  a  step  farther  than  the 
commission  j^lan  of  city  government.  In  cities  governed  by 
this  form,  the  commissioners  hire  an  expert  to  niunagi-  the 
city's  business  just  as  a  manager  runs  a  large  corporation, 
lie  usually  appoints  officials,  has  charge  of  the  eity  fiiianees, 
and  sees  that  the  ordinances  of  the  city  are  obeynl.     The 


264  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

great  centralization  of  power  in  the  hands  of  one  man  or  a 
commission  is  looked  upon  by  those  who  oppose  these  forms 
of  city  government  as  undemocratic.  Nevertheless,  thus  far, 
the  cities  which  have  tried  these  new  methods  of  self-govern- 
ment seem  to  find  them  much  more  satisfactory  than  the 
mayor-covmcil  type. 

Questions  for  Investigation 

1 .  How  were  the  Indians  governed  ? 

2.  Who  were  the  first  settlers  of  your  eommunity  ?  Did  they  have 
any  problems  to  solve  which  your  community  has?  If  so,  how  did 
they  solve  them  ? 

3.  When  was  your  community  incorporated?  Who  gave  it  its 
charter  ?     What  are  the  boundaries  of  your  community  ? 

4.  What  are  some  of  the  problems  a  city  has  to  solve  which  a  smaller 
community  does  not  have  ? 

5.  If  you  could  make  a  choice,  in  which  would  you  prefer  to  live,  a 
large  city  or  a  smaller  community  ?     Wliy  ? 

6.  By  which  of  tlie  different  forms  of  municipal  government  are  you 
governed  ?  Do  you  tliink  the  people  are  satisfied  with  the  present  form, 
or  do  they  wish  to  change  to  some  other  form  ?  What  reasons  can  you 
find  for  the  desire  for  a  change  ? 

7.  If  you  know  any  of  the  officials  of  the  commimity,  ask  them  to 
explain  their  duties  to  you.  Make  a  report  to  the  class  of  what  they 
tell  you. 

8.  What  is  the  law-making  body  of  your  community  named  ?  How 
is  it  chosen?  What  are  some  of  the  ordinances  (laws)  which  it  has 
recently  passed  ?      Do  you  think  they  are  good  laws  ?      Why  ? 

9.  If  you  were  its  chief  executive  officer  or  a  member  of  its  law- 
making body,  what  improvements  would  you  try  to  make  in  your 
community  ? 

10.  What  are  some  of  the  reasons  for  the  growth  of  your  community  ? 
Has  it  any  natural  resources?     If  so,  what  are  they? 

11.  Is  the  population  of  your  community  increasing  or  decreasing? 
Why? 

12.  Make  an  outline  of  your  local  government,  showing  its  chief 
officials,  how  they  receive  their  office,  length  of  their  term,  and  their 
duties. 


OOVERXMFA'T    OF    A     I.AHCKH    ( 'DM  Ml\  IT^      LlGo 

For  cxaniplo, 

Officials  Elected  dy  the  People        Term  or  Office        Duties 
Mayor 


For  example, 


Officials  -U'pointed        Bv  Whom        Teku  or  Office        Ddtibs 
Commissioner  of 
Public  Safety  Mayor 


CHAPTER   XVIII 
THE  LAWMAKERS  OF  STATE  AND   NATION 

The  local  divisions  of  government  which  we  have  studied 
about  are  a  part  of,  and  receive  their  power  from,  a  j'et 
greater  community,  the  state,  which  in  turn  receives  its 
power  from  the  state  and  national  constitutions  and  the 
laws  enacted  by  the  state  and  national  lawmakers.  When 
the  first  towns  were  established  the  settlers  took  what  means 
they  thought  proper  for  self-government  without  regard  to 
the  limitations  of  the  law.  Counties  and  towns  had  to  be 
incorporated,  taxes  were  levied,  and  later,  towns  elected 
delegates  to  represent  them  in  a  central  government. 
All  this  was  done  as  the  need  arose  for  action.  When  gov- 
ernment became  fully  organized,  the  powers  were  divided 
as  we  have  seen  between  the  local  authorities,  the  state, 
and  the  nation.  "  For  many  years  the  New  England  town- 
ships were  undisturbed  by  the  king  or  the  parliament  of 
England,  and  exercised  such  powers  as  are  now  exercised 
by  the  state.  In  fact  they  created  the  states  which  now  con- 
trol them."  It  might  be  said  in  addition,  that  the  states 
created  the  federal  government  which  now  controls  them. 

Relations  of  local  and  state  governments.  —  All  forms  of 
local  government  at  the  present  time  act  either  as  the  agents 
of  the  state  in  enforcing  the  laws  passed  by  the  state  law- 
making body,  or  for  themselves  in  enforcing  such  town, 
village,  county,  or  city  ordinances  as  the  state  permits  them 

266 


THE    LAWMAKERS   OF   STATK    AXI)    NATIOX     2(17 

to  pass.  Sucli  porinissioii  is  ^^raiitcd  cither  l>y  the  >l:it(' 
constitution  or  by  tlu-  k'<,Msljiture  of  the  state.  It  is  very 
important  to  notice,  however,  that  "the  local  authorities 
derive  their  authority  not  froni  the  pcoj)lc  of  the  localities, 
but  from  the  people  of  the  whole  state,"  who  elected  the 
legislature  or  sent  representatives  to  make  the  coii.vtitiiiic.n. 

The  state  lawmakers. — The  most  powerful  i)art  of  the 
state  go\ernment  is  that  which  makes  the  laws.  This  body 
is  known  by  difl'erent  names  in  dift'erent  states,  tiie  legis- 
lature, the  general  court,  the  general  assembly.  It  is  jdways 
composed  of  two  houses,  an  upper  house,  known  as  the 
senate,  and  a  lower  house,  known  as  the  assembly,  the  house 
of  representatives,  or  the  house  of  delegates. 

Comparison  of  the  two  houses.  —  These  two  parts  of  the 
law-making  body  are  alike  in  many  respects.  They  are 
both  elected  by  the  people  from  cciti'in  districts,  usuall\- 
of  about  equal  i)opulation.  In  some  states  a  senator  is 
elected  from  each  coimty,  but  in  most  states  he  is  elected  from 
a  division  known  as  a  senatorial  district.  Hy  written  or 
unwritten  law  the  one  chosen  nuist  reside  in  the  district 
from  which  he  is  elected.  The  (lualilications  for  holding 
office  are  usually  the  same  for  each  house,  though  in  .some 
states  the  required  age  of  those  elected  to  the  senate  is 
greater  than  that  of  those  elected  to  the  lower  house.  When 
the  legislature  is  organized,  the  organi/.ation  is  much  the 
same  in  each  house.  Each  has  a  jiresiding  officer:  in  the 
senate,  the  lieutenant-goxcrnor,  who  lia>  i)cen  elected  by 
the  people  of  the  state,  or  a  president,  who  is  ehos<-n  by  the 
senate;  in  the  lower  house,  a  si)eaker,  chosen  by  the  mem- 
bers. Each  house  is  divided  into  committees  in  order  that 
business  may  be  carriefl  on  more  easily  and  (piickly.  The 
method  of  passing  a  bill  through  cither  house  is  practi<-ally 


268  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

the  same,  except  that  in  many  states  all  bills  for  raising 
revenue  must  start  in  the  lower  house.  Any  other  bill  may 
be  introduced  into  either  house. 

Perhaps  one  may  wonder  why  there  are  two  houses,  since 
they  seem  so  similar.  There  is  a  very  good  reason,  for  one 
acts  as  a  check  on  the  other.  It  is  more  difficult  for  a  bad 
bill  to  become  a  law  when  it  is  necessary  for  it  to  pass  two 
houses.  Mr.  Bryce  says  that,  "  the  Americans  restrain  their 
legislatures  by  dividing  them,  just  as  the  Romans  restrained 
their  executive  by  substituting  two  consuls  for  one  king." 

Differences  between  the  two  houses.  —  The  two  houses 
also  have  some  differences.  The  senate  is  always  the  smaller 
body.  There  are  16  senators  and  37  members  of  the  lower 
house  in  Nevada ;  a  senate  of  67  members  and  a  house  of 
130  members  in  INIinnesota ;  and  in  New  Hampshire  the 
senate  numbers  24  while  the  house  has  405  !  The  districts 
from  which  senators  are  elected  are  larger  than  those  from 
which  the  members  of  the  lower  house  are  chosen,  and  they 
contain  a  larger  number  of  people.  The  senate  has  several 
special  powers,  one  of  which  is,  in  many  states,  to  pass 
upon  the  appointments  of  officials  made  by  the  governor. 
When  a  governor  or  other  state  official  is  on  trial  (impeach- 
ment), each  house  has  a  special  duty.  In  some  states  when 
a  state  official  is  suspected  of  wrongdoing,  he  is  sometimes 
impeached,  that  is,  brought  to  trial,  by  the  lower  house. 
The  senate,  in  New  York  State,  in  company  with  the 
judges  of  the  highest  state  court,  acts  as  a  court  to  try  the 
accused,  and  at  the  close  of  the  trial  votes  on  his  guilt  or 
innocence.  If  the  accused  official  is  found  guilty,  he  is 
removed  from  office.  The  term  of  office  of  senators  is 
usually  longer  than  that  of  the  other  house.  In  about  two 
thirds  of  the  states  it  is  four  vears,  in  the  others  it  is  two. 


THE    LAWMAKERS   OK   STA'l'K    AM)    NATION      Jfl!) 

excq)t  in  New  Jersey,  where  it  is  tlinv,  and  in  .Ma»;uliiis(tts, 
where  it  is  only  one  year;  in  eij^rhteen  of  the  states  the  icrtii 
of  <)fiic(^  of  both  liouses  is  the  sarjie. 

Legislatures  and  their  work.  —  The  legislatures  meet  at 
the  eai)itals  of  their  respective  states  excry  two  years  in  most 
states,  every  year  in  a  few,  but  only  onee  in  four  year-  in  Ala- 
bama. Bad  legislation  and  the  making  of  t(»o  many  laws 
have  led  nearly  all  the  states  to  fewer  and  shorter  me<'tings 
of  the  law-making  bodies.  .\s  soon  as  they  meet  cadi  house 
chooses  its  officials,  ^ — clerks,  sergeants-at-arnis.  a  (•hai)lain, 
pages,  etc.,  and  is  soon  ready  for  business.  This  business 
covers  a  wide  range.  INIr.  James  Bryce,  in  his  great  work 
on  American  government,  The  Anicrirtm  Commonicealth, 
divided  the  laws  which  a  legislature  iiia>-  pass  into  three 
divisions,  as  follows  : 

(1)  such  laws  as  have  to  do  with  our  excryday  all'air-^ ; 

(2)  the  laws  wdiich  regulate  city  and  local  goNcrinnents ; 
for  example,  those  concerning  education,  \aeeination,  regu- 
lation of  corporations,  railroads,  labor,  and  laws  which  have 
to  do  with  state  and  local  taxation  ; 

(3)  special  law^s ;  for  example,  those  which  ha\e  to  do 
with  the  incorporating  and  chartering  of  a  \ariety  of  com- 
panies, such  as  gas,  water,  trolley  or  railroad  companies, 
and  the  chartering  of  cities  and  \illages.  This  latter  class 
of  laws  has  grown  so  large  that  some  states  ha\e  forbiddi-n 
a  great  amount  of  such  legislation  either  by  the  constitu- 
tion or  by  s])eeial  laws. 

The  national  constitution  and  also  some  state  constitu- 
tions forbid  the  state  legislatures  to  make  certain  laws. 
There  are  some  subjects  upon  wliicli  tlic\  ma\  not  legislate, 
but  there  are  many  more  up(»n  which  they  may.  To  give 
some  idea  of  the  great  number  of  laws  passed  it  is  only  neces- 


270  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

sary  to  say  that  during  a  period  of  five  years  it  is  said 
that  there  were  more  than  00,000  laws  j)assed  by  the  state 
legislatures.  To  remedy  this  e\'il  of  too  much  legislation, 
'  we  must  seek  to  form  an  educated  public  opinion,  which 
will  tolerate  only  first-class  men,  wise  laws,  sane  legislation, 
and  a  well-organized  system  of  go^•crnment." 

New  system  of  legislation.  —  Di.ring  the  last  twenty 
years  a  new  system  of  state  legislation  has  been  coming  into 
use.  This  is  a  system  in  which  the  people  take  part  directly 
and  make  the  legislature  subordinate  to  them.  This  has 
been  described  under  the  government  of  a  city  (see  Chapter 
XVII),  and  includes  the  initiative,  referendum,  and  recall. 
The  referendum  has  really  been  in  use  since  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  state  governments,  for  many  laws  passed  by  the 
state  law-making  bodies  have  had  to  be  referred  to  the  people 
for  their  sanction ;  for  example,  amendments  to  the  state 
constitutions  and  the  incurring  of  a  large  state  debt  have 
been  voted  upon  by  the  people  before  they  became  legal. 
When  New  York  !^"tate  built  the  barge  canal,  a  great  bond 
issue  to  pay  for  it  was  voted  on  by  the  people.  At  the  present 
time  the  referendum  is  used  in  more  than  twenty  states,  and 
a  large  number  of  questions  may  be  referred  to  the  people 
at  their  demand,  after  a  bill  has  been  passed  by  the  legisla- 
ture. 

The  initiative  is  practically  the  same  method  that  is  used 
in  a  municipality,  except  that  it  is  state  wide.  By  the  re- 
call, incompetent  or  dishonest  officials  may  be  removed  by  a 
vote  of  the  people,  as  under  the  commission  form  of  city 
government,  rather  than  by  impeachment  proceedings. 
Some  of  the  states,  in  order  that  questions  may  be  clearly 
understood  before  they  are  voted  on,  send  out  pamphlets  to 
the  voters  with  arguments  both  for  and  against  the  measure 


THE    LAWMAKERS    OF    STATK    AND    NATION      271 


under  consideration.  These  measures  have  Ix'cn  calli-d  "  the 
gun  behind  the  door,"  meaninj^  that  they  arc  i(  atl.\  ti>  lie 
used  in  case  of  necessity. 

The  Congress  of  the  United  States.  —  The  hiw-niai^in^ 
body  of  the  I'nited  States  is  siniihir  in  many  \va>s  to  the 
hiw-making  bodies  of  the  other  forms  of  go\ criuni  nt  ah-tady 


A    CIl.lMPSK    OF    THK    ("aIMTOI. 


studied,  that  of  the  local  eonununity.  the  board  of  >upcr- 
visors,  and  the  legislatures  of  the  states.  It  i-  a  bmly  c.f  men 
elected  by  the  ])eoi)le  to  make  their  laws  for  them.  Like  the 
legislatures  of  the  various  states,  it  is  comjjosed  of  two  1  louses, 
the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Heprescntatives.  tlie  Senate  rej)- 
resenting  the  State  and  the  House  of  Kepresentatives.  tiie 
people. 


272  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

National  senators.  —  The  I  nited  States  senators  are 
elected  by  the  people  of  their  respective  states  for  a  term  of 
six  years.  A  senator  must  be  thirty  years  old  and  a  resi- 
dent of  the  state  from  which  he  is  elected.  He  must  have 
been  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  for  nine  years. 

Of  the  two  Houses,  the  Senate  is  supposed  to  be  the  more 
dignified.  The  term  of  office  is  longer,  and  its  members 
serve  for  longer  periods  than  do  those  of  the  House.  It  is 
also  a  continuous  body,  as  only  one  third  of  its  members 
go  out  of  office  each  year,  while  the  members  of  the  House, , 
unless  reelected,  go  out  of  office  at  the  same  time.  In  1911 
nearly  one  third  of  the  senators  had  served  for  more  than 
twenty  years.  ^Yashington  called  the  Senate  "  the  saucer 
in  which  the  tea  of  the  house  is  cooled."  It  has  never  per- 
mitted itself  to  be  photographed,  as  it  feels  that  this  would 
not  be  in  accordance  with  its  dignity.  So  strongly  does  the 
Senate  hold  to  its  old  customs  that  to  this  day  snuft'  boxes 
are  kept  in  its  place  of  meeting,  and  these  are  kept  filled 
with  snuflF,  though  the  custom  of  snufftaking  died  out  many 
years  ago. 

Certain  powers  are  given  this  body  which  are  not  given 
to  the  other  House.  The  Senate  has  the  power  of  appro\'ing 
the  appointments  of  the  President  and  of  acting  as  the  court 
when  impeachments  are  tried.  It  is  also  the  body  which 
has  the  power  of  accepting  or  rejecting  treaties  made  with 
foreign  countries  by  the  President  or  other  representatives 
of  this  country.  When  the  Electoral  College  fails  to  elect 
a  Vice-President,  he  is  chosen  by  the  Senate. 

House  of  Representatives.  — The  House  of  Representatives 
is  elected  by  the  people  of  the  different  states.  Each  state 
is  divided  into  districts  according  to  its  population,  and  each 
district  sends  a  representative.      In  1921  there  were  435. 


THE    LAWMAKERS    OF    STATK    AM)    \.\Tlo\     27:^ 

A  representative  must  he  twtiity-fivt"  years  nlil,  a  citizen  of 
the  United  States  for  seven  years,  a  resident  of  the  >tate.  I»iit 
not  necessarily  of  tlie  district  from  wliieii  lie  is  elected. 
Almost  without  exception,  ho\ve\-er,  a  rejjresentative  is 
chosen  from  his  own  district.  The  theor\-  is  that  he  knows 
the  conditions  of  that  district  better  than  .some  one  from  an- 
other district.  In  practice,  this  rule  keeps  many  j;ood  men 
from  Congress,  because  they  live  in  the  same  district  as  one 
already  chosen.  The  term  of  ollice  is  two  years  ami  the 
salary  the  same  as  that  of  a  senator.  Like  the  Senate,  the 
House  has  certain  s])ecia.l  functions.  .MI  bills  for  the  raising; 
of  revenue  must  start  from  the  House.  When  the  l'!lectoral 
College  fails  to  elect  a  President,  it  is  done  by  the  House. 
It  has  the  sole  power  of  bringing  an  impeachnient .  When 
it  becomes  necessary  to  impeach  an  official,  the  llou>e  ap- 
points a  committee  to  conduct  the  case.  It  is  tried  before 
the  Senate  acting  as  a  jury,  with  the  chief  justice  of  the 
Supreme  Court  or  the  Vice-President  presiding.  A  two- 
thirds  vote  is  necessary  for  con\iction. 

Comparison  of  the  two  Houses.  —  There  are  c(Ttain  like- 
nesses between  the  two  Houses.  Both  have  a  presiding (»flicer. 
in  the  Senate,  the  Vice-President,  and  in  the  House,  the 
speaker,  who  is  chosen  by  the  House.  Each  makes  its  own 
rules  of  procedure  and  chooses  its  !iece>sary  officials.  Each 
body  judges  the  election  of  its  members.  If,  after  due 
investigation,  a  member  is  found  to  liaxc  been  elected  ille- 
gally, or  to  be  of  bad  character,  he  may  i)e  e.\pelled.  Kaeli 
may  punish  its  members  for  disorderly  conduct  on  the  floor 
of  the  Chamber.  In  the  House  the  mace  is  the  .symbol  of 
its  power.  This  is  patterned  after  the  old  Homan  symbol, 
which  was  borne  before  its  chief  magistrates.  When  a 
member  is    disorderly,    the    sergeant-at-arms,  bearing    the 


274  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

mace  tipped  with  its  silver  eagle,  may  arrest  him.  It  is 
said,  however,  that  any  disorder  usually  subsides  before  the 
mace  is  taken  from  its  pedestal  before  the  speaker's  chair. 
The  threat  of  it  is  sufficient.  Each  House  of  Congress 
keeps  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  except  those  which  re- 
quire secrecy.  Neither  may  adjourn  for  more  than  three 
days  without  the  consent  of  the  other  during  a  session  of 
Congress.  This  provision  prevents  obstruction  of  the  work 
of  Congress  by  the  adjournment  of  one  house. 

The  Houses  have  certain  prohibitions  and  privileges  in 
common.  Each  member  receives  compensation  for  his  work, 
as  we  have  seen.  The  members  are  free  from  arrest  while 
Congress  is  in  session,  except  in  cases  of  treason,  felony,  that 
is,  such  crimes  as  murder,  arson,  or  burglary,  or  a  breach  of 
the  peace.  They  may  not  be  questioned  for  any  speech  or 
debate  in  which  they  share,  though  this  does  not  give  them 
the  privilege  of  talking  scandal  or  uttering  a  libel  against 
other  members.  No  member  of  Congress  may  hold  another 
office  while  a  member  of  that  body. 

A  session  of  Congress.  —  A  meeting,  or  session,  of  Congress 
lasts  two  }'ears.  The  session  is  divided  into  a  long  and  a 
short  session.  The  long  session  begins  the  first  Monday 
in  December  and  continues  indefinitely  into  the  following 
summer.  The  short  session  begins  the  following  December 
and  closes  IMarch  4.  The  President  may  call  a  special 
session  of  Congress  if  he  thinks  the  condition  of  the  country 
needs  it.  A  representative  elected  at  the  November  elec- 
tion does  not  take  his  place  in  Congress  until  a  year  from 
the  December  following  his  election. 

How  a  bill  becomes  a  law.  —  Like  the  state  legislatures. 
Congress  is  divided  into  committees  for  greater  ease  in  carry- 
ing on  the  business  of  lawmaking.     If  this  were  not  done, 


THE    LAWMAKEI{S   OF    STATE    AND    NATION'     275 


•^^ 


276  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

if  "  only  four  minutes  were  given  to  the  consideration  of 
each  of  the  bills  introduced  (45,000),  it  would  require  Con- 
gress to  be  in  session  for  over  three  hundred  days  in  the  year 
to  dispose  of  all  of  them." 

In  order  for  a  bill  to  become  a  law,  it  must  follow  a  certain 
course  of  procedure. 

(1)  It  may  be  introduced  into  either  body  and  read  by 
title,  after  which  it  is  referred  to  its  proper  committee. 

(2)  The  committee  either  "  kills  "  it,  that  is,  refuses  to 
report  it  again,  or  else  after  discussion  reports  it  to  the  body 
in  which  it  was  introduced. 

(3)  It  is  read  and  discussed  twice  more  in  the  House  where 
introduced  (a  bill  has  three  readings). 

(4)  The  bill  then  comes  to  a  vote. 

(5)  If  the  bill  is  passed,  it  is  sent  to  the  other  House  where 
it  goes  through  the  same  process  as  in  the  House  where  it 
was  introduced,  that  is,  it  is  read  once,  referred  to  its 
proper  committee,  read  twice  more  and  debated,  and  then 
voted  on. 

(G)  It  then  goes  to  the  President,  who  either  signs  the  bill, 
thus  making  it  a  law,  or  else  vetoes  it.  If  it  is  not  signed  or 
vetoed  within  ten  days,  and  Congress  is  in  session,  it  be- 
comes a  law  without  his  signature. 

(7)  Should  the  President  veto  a  bill,  it  may  then  be 
passed  over  his  veto  by  a  two-thirds  vote  in  each  House. 

This  process  by  which  a  bill  becomes  a  law  is  practically 
the  same  as  that  followed  by  the  states. 

The  Constitution  specifies  the  legislative  powers  possessed 
by  Congress.  Some  are  stated  in  a  general  way  and  have 
been  construed  very  wisely,  while  others  are  stated  more 
specifically.  We  may  divide  these  powers  roughly  into 
financial,  war,  commercial,  and  general  legislative  powers. 


THE    LAWMAKERS    OF    STATK    AM)    NATION      277 

(1)  It  lays  and  collects  taxes,  duties,  iinixists  and  excises, 
and  the  income  tax,  and  pays  the  dehts  of  tlie  nation.  It 
may  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  I'nited  States.  It 
may  regulate  tlie  hiws  which  have  to  do  with  the  payment  of 
personal  debts,  known  as  baid<ruptcy  laws.  It  may  coin 
money  and  i)unish  its  counterfeiting.  It  regulates  the  \  alue 
of  our  money  and  the  value  of  foreign  coin. 

(2)  In  time  of  war  Congress  is  given  large  powers.  It 
declares  war,  makes  peace,  and  makes  rules  concerning 
captures  on  land  and  water.  It  raises  and  su])j)orts  armies 
and  provides  and  maintains  a  navy.  It  makes  rules  for  tin- 
government  of  the  land  and  na\al  forces.  It  may  call  out 
the  militia  to  enforce  the  execution  of  the  laws,  to  suj)press 
insurrection,  and  to  repel  invasion.  It  provides  for  the 
organization,  arming,  and  (liscii)lining  of  the  militia,  though 
the  j)ower  to  appoint  tlie  officers  of  the  militia  and  the 
authority  to  train  it,  is  reserved  to  the  stati's.  When  there 
is  need  for  such  action,  the  militia  may  be  sworn  into  the 
federal  service  ;  it  then  takes  its  place  as  i>art  of  the  federal 
troops  and  is  under  the  direct  control  of  the  federal  go\ crn- 
ment. 

During  the  war  with  Germany,  Congress  gave  the  President 
the  power  of  appointing  many  boards  and  eoimnittees 
which  were  of  great  hel|)  in  bringing  the  war  to  a  successful 
conclusion. 

(3)  It  has  authority  to  regulate  commerce  with  foreign 
nations  and  among  the  several  states.  Hy  decisions  of  the 
Supreme  Court  in  interpreting  this  clause  of  the  Constitu- 
tion, this  has  come  to  mean  the  regulation  of  both  interstate 
and  foreign  commerce.  This  includes  naxigation.  tran^|)or- 
tation,  communication  by  telegraph  and  telephone,  the  right 
to  levy  an  embargo  or  prohibit  certain  commerce  between 


278 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


states,  and  the  right  to  pass  laws  against  the  trusts  that 
restrain  free  commerce. 

(4)  Congress  is  given  certain  powers  not  easy  to  classify : 
the  power  to  establish  a  certain  uniform  rule  of  naturaliza- 
tion, to  fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures,  to  estab- 
lish post  offices  and  post  roads,  to  grant  copyrights  and 


Cuurltsy  uf  UiK  Commission  of  Fine  Ailj 

The  Congressional  Library 

patents,  to  govern  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  to  admit 
new  states. 

(5)  Finally  the  Constitution  includes  what  has  been  called 
the  "  elastic  clause  "  because  it  stretches  out  to  cover  almost 
every  need  that  may  arise,  "  Congress  shall  have  power  to 
make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carry- 
ing into  execution  the  foregoing  laws,  and  all  other  jwicers 
vested  by  this  Constitution  in  the  government  of  the  United 


THE    LAWMAKERS   OF   STATK    AND    XATIOX     27!) 

States,  or  in  any  (Icpaitiiuiit  or  (illiccr  tlicrcot."  This  is 
the  famous  clause  which  has  niaih'  dui-  u'<>\fniniciit  one  of 
impHed  or  understood  jiowc-rs,  as  well  as  one  with  powers 
more  specifically  stated.  There  is  nothing  stated  in  the 
Constitution  which  would  make  possible  the  control  of  the 
food  of  the  nation.  Yet  Congress  passed  a  law  which  gave 
President  Wilson  the  power  to  a])point  Mr.  llo(»\cr  as  the 
head  of  a  dej)artment  to  look  after  the  food  sup[)ly  of  the 
nation  duriiiu  the  war  with  Cerniaiiy,  that  nritluT  wc  nor 
our  Allies  might  sutler.  Congress  also  ga\e  tlu'  President 
power  to  place  the  railroads,  the  telegraph  and  t<'lephone 
lines,  and  many  public  corporations  under  control  of  the 
government,  so  that  war  work  mi,LrIit  not  be  interfereil  with. 


Questions  fou  I\vp:stic..\tio\ 

1.  What  is  the  name  of  your  state  law-makinp  liody?  Wliat  is 
the  name  of  each  house'/  How  many  memhers  lias  eacli  ?  llow  are 
they  chosen?     What  are  their  qualifications? 

2.  How  many  hiws  were  passed  at  the  last  session  of  y<)\ir  lc;:isla- 
ture?     Were  tliey  all  necessary  laws? 

3.  What  powers  has  your  legislature  over  its  mcmliers?  In  what 
ways  can  it  punish  those  of  its  nicmhcrs  who  «lo  wronj:? 

4.  What  has  your  lepslaturc  to  do  with  the  cilucational  affairs  of  the 

state  ? 

.5.  What  restrictions  are  placed  upon  the  lawmakers  l)y  the  state 
constitution  ? 

6.  Does  your  state  employ  the  initiative  anil  the  referendum  in 
law-making?     If  so,  describe  the  manner  in  which  they  are  um-iI. 

7.  What  share  does  the  governor  have  in  the  making  of  the  laws? 

5.  Who  are  your  representatives  in  each  house  <if  the  legishiture? 

9.  Write  a  letter  to  one  of  your  re|)resentatives  for  a  copy  of  a  hill 
that  is  to  be  enacted  into  a  law.  In  whose  name  is  it  drawn  up?  Hi- 
port  to  the  class  on  the  i)rovisions  of  the  hill. 

10.  Does  your  legislattire  emjjloy  |)ages?  Can  you  s<-<«  nny  dis- 
advantages which  might  ari-c  fmm  Mrvin-  a-  a  pau'c  in  the  legislature? 


280  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

11.  Does  your  legislature  have  coniniittees?  If  so,  what  are  the 
most  important  ones,  and  what  are  their  duties?  \Vhat  is  the  necessity 
for  committees  ? 

12.  What  subjects  upon  which  the  legislature  passes  laws  are  the 
same  as  those  upon  which  your  local  law-making  body  may  act  ? 

13.  Why  is  it  an  advantage  for  a  legislatiu-e  to  be  composed  of  two 
houses  ? 

14.  Give  arguments  either  for  or  against  the  annual  meeting  of  the 
legislature. 

15.  Write  a  letter  to  a  friend  describing  either  a  real  or  imaginary 
visit  to  your  state  capital,  including  a  visit  to  the  capitol. 

16.  What  powers  are  forbidden  to  Congress  by  the  federal  Constitu- 
tion? 

17.  What  were  some  of  the  special  powers  granted  to  President 
Wilson  by  Congress  during  the  war  against  Germany? 

18.  What  are  the  chief  committees  of  the  House  of  Representatives? 
Of  the  Senate? 

19.  Wlio  is  the  member  of  the  House  of  Representatives  from  your 
district  ?  Who  are  the  senators  from  your  state  ?  Wlien  do  the  terms 
of  office  of  these  officials  expire? 

20.  Is  there  any  law  to  prevent  a  resident  of  New  York  City  from 
becoming  the  representative  from  a  district  in  California  ? 

21.  What  is  the  name  of  the  paper  in  which  the  proceedings  of 
Congress  are  officially  published?  Wliat  is  its  value?  What  is  meant 
by  "leave  to  print"? 

22.  If  a  member  of  Congress  is  found  guilty  of  a  crime,  how  may  he 
be  removed  from  his  seat  in  Congress  ? 

2.3.  What  check  does  Congress  have  upon  the  President?  What 
check  does  the  President  have  upon  the  power  of  Congress?  Wliat 
check  does  Congress  have  upon  the  power  of  the  federal  judges? 
What  check  does  the  Supreme  Com-t  have  upon  Congress? 

24.  How  is  it  possible  for  a  Congress  to  compel  the  presence  of 
absent  members ?     Is  this  proper?     Why? 

25.  Members  of  Congress  are  free  from  arrest  except  w  hen  they  have 
committed  a  serious  crime.     Why  ? 

26.  How  many  senators  were  there  at  the  time  of  the  first  Congress  ? 
How  many  are  there  at  present?  How  many  members  are  there  at 
present  in  the  House  of  Representatives? 

27.  How  much  mileage  does  the  representative  from  your  district 
receive  ? 


CIIAITKK    XIX 
THE  STATE  EXECUTIVES 

The  governor. —  .Just  as  the  \illai:c  |)iv-i(Iciit  or  tlic 
city  mayor  (see  Chapter  X\'1I)  is  the  ehief  exeeutixe 
officer  of  his  community,  so  the  <;overnor  is  the  chief  executive 
officer  of  the  state.  Like  them  his  chief  duty  is  to  see  that 
the  laws  are  properly  executed.  In  all  states  he  is  elected 
by  the  people  of  the  state,  in  some  states  for  two  years,  in 
about  an  equal  number  for  four.  Massachusetts  chooses  its 
governor  for  one  year,  New  Jersey  for  three  years,  ;mh1 
Arizona  for  five.  The  <j;overnor's  salary  varies  greatly  in  the 
different  states,  and  in  about  one  half  the  states  he  is  fur- 
nished a  residence  in  addition  to  his  salary. 

For  many  years  in  our  early  history  the  governors  did  not 
have  much  power,  as  the  people  of  the  different  states  remem- 
bered the  colonial  governors  and  their  great  almse  of  author- 
ity. In  recent  years,  more  and  more  power  has  been  j)laced 
in  their  hands  and  they  are  held  more  sirictly  to  account  for 
the  enforcement  of  the  laws.  Their  power  may  be  dixided 
into  three  kinds,  as  we  ha\c  ah-eady  seen  in  the  govern- 
ments we  have  studied,  executi\-e,  li'gislati\t',  and  judicial. 

Powers  and  duties  of  the  govemor.  —  .\s  the  chief  cxc<u- 
tive  officer  of  the  state,  the  goxcrnor  sees  tliat  the  laws  of  the 
state  are  enforced  ;  that  riot>and  insurreetioiiN  are  |>ut  <lowri ; 
and  that  the  national  laws  which  haxi-  to  do  with  the  state 
are  enforced.     lie  also  has  the  |)ower  to  appoint  many  of 

2Sl 


282 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


THE    STA'l'K    KXKCl'TIVKS 


283 


the  state  ofHcial.s,  altluni.uli  in  soiiu-  states  siicii  apijoiiit- 
ments  must  be  agreed  to  by  the  si-iiatc  In  some  of  the  com- 
monwealths lie  has  the  power  of  reino\ini;  an  dfficial  even 
though  he  has  been  elected,  if  such  an  ((flicial  is  incomi)eteiit 


Stocking  a  Stkeam  with  Young  Trolt 
This  is  the  work  of  one  of  the  executive  departments  of  tlie  state  govern- 
ment.    What   name   does   this   department   ret-eive   in    your   st.'ito? 

or  dishonest.  The  people  li(»l<l  the  governor  respc.n-iblc 
for  the  acts  of  those  whom  he  i\ppoints  ;  if  they  are  incincient . 
the  administration  of  the  governor  is  held  t..  br  iiH-flicicnt. 
The  chief  executive  is  the  commander-in-chi<f  «»f  the  militia 
of  the  state  and  as  such  may  use  it,  either  (tn  his  own  initia- 


284  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

tive,  or  at  the  call  of  a  sheriff  or  other  official,  to  put  down  dis- 
order within  the  borders  of  the  state.  In  New  York  and 
also  in  Pennsylvania,  the  governor  has  at  his  command  a 
State  Constabularv.     The    duties    and  work  of  this  force 


Movable  Dam  of  the  Bridge  Type  and  Lock 

Work  of  a  state  engineer.  This  dam  is  on  the  canaUzed  Mohawk 
River.  During  the  winter  the  gates  and  frames  are  raised  to  a  horizontal 
position  under  the  bridge  floor,  thus  leaving  the  river  channel  open  during 
the  spring  flood  period. 


have   been   described    in    the   chapter   on    protection    (see 
Chapter  V). 

His  legislative  duties  consist  of  sending  messages  to  the 
legislature,  to  which  he  suggests  the  passage  of  necessary 
legislation,  and  also  of  his  use  of  the  veto  power.  In  some 
states  in  addition  to  the  sending  of  the  messages,  the  governor 
goes  so  far  as  to  have  bills  drawn  up  and  to  urge  their  passage. 
In  one  state  such  a  bill  has  precedence  over  all  other  legisla- 
tion.    The  veto  power  gives  the  governor  power  to  forbid 


TIIK    STATK    KXKcr'I'lVKS  2S.j 

any  lo^nshitioii  wliicli  lie  may  think  iimca-<()Mal»lc.  it'  the 
law-makiii^f  hody  docs  not  a])})ro\-('  tlic  ntIo,  the  law  may 
be  passed  over  the  veto  1)\-  a  certain  innnlit  r  of  \(i\v>,  wliicli 
differs  in  dilVerent  states. 

The  governor  lias  tlie  jxiwer  of  repriex  iiiL'.  itardoning,  or 
commuting  the  sentences  of  eonvietedCriminals,  if  he  thinks 
a  wrong  has  been  done.  A  pardon  gives  tlie  criminal  his 
freedom.  To  commute  a  sentence  is  to  change  it  for  a 
lighter  one,  for  example,  to  change  a  sentence  fr<»in  the  death 
penalty  to  life  imprisonment.  To  rejjriexc  is  to  put  oil'  the 
execution  of  the  sentence.  This  is  <lone  when  lu-w  e\  ideiice 
is  found  in  favor  of  the  convicted  criminal,  or  when  there 
is  doubt  in  the  governor's  mind  as  to  the  sentence,  and  he 
wishes  more  time  to  consider  the  case.  If  the  new  evidence 
is  found  valueless,  the  original  sentence  is  carried  out. 
These  are  the  judicial  powers  of  the  governor. 

In  additi(m  to  these  three  kinds  of  duties,  the  governor 
has  many  social  duties.  He  represents  the  state  at  the  dedi- 
cation of  public  buildings  and  at  the  oi)ening  of  fairs.  He  is 
present  at  important  celebrations  and  gatherings  of  many 
kinds.  "Some  excellent  governors  have  died  in  oflice  be- 
cause of  the  fatigue  of  constant  public  speaking." 

The  lieutenant-governor.  —  At  the  s;ime  elec-tion  at  which 
the  governor  is  chosen,  tlie  \oters  of  the  state  elect  other 
executive  officials.  More  than  lialf  the  states  have  a  lieu- 
tenant-governor who  succeeds  the  chi<f  executive  in  ca.M.' 
of  his  death,  or  takes  his  place  if  he  i>  ill  or  ab>ent  fn.m  tlie 
state.  This  official  usually  j)resides  over  the  deliberations 
of  the  senate. 

Other  state  officials.  In  nil  states  a  secretary  of  state  is 
chosen,  who  has  charge  of  the  state  doeummts  and  nr<»r<ls, 
and  a  state  treasurer,  who  receives  the  mone\  paid  for  state 


286 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


T-^ 


Road  under  Consthuction  by  a  State  Executive 

The  upper  picture  shows  the  original  road.     The  lower  picture  shows  the 
laying  of  the  foundation. 


THE    STATK    KXKcrTIVKs 


28'/ 


IlOAD    UNDEK    CoNSTHljCTiuN    UV    A    Sl'Alt    ExtCLTIVK 

The  upper  picture  shows  the  road  nearly  fiiiishiHi.     The  loiriT  pictuiv 

•ihows  the  finislied  road. 

What  state  executive  builds  roads?     What  share  do  county  ami   t<iwn 
have  in  buildiny  a  road? 


288  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

taxes  from  all  sources.  Sometimes  there  is  a  state  auditor 
or  comptroller,  without  whose  warrant  the  treasurer  cannot 
pay  out  money  from  the  treasury;  the  attorney-general 
acts  as  a  lawyer  for  the  state ;  a  superintendent  of 
education  has  charge  of  the  schools.  Either  elected  by  the 
people  or  appointed  by  the  governor  are  certain  commis- 
sioners:  of  banking,  highways,  factories,  health,  and  the 
many  other  activities  relating  to  the  life  and  industries  of 
the  citizens  of  the  state. 

These  officials  in  their  turn  have  the  power  of  appoint- 
ing so  many  officials  as  their  subordinates,  that  in  one  year 
in  New  York  State  there  were  nearly  20,000  state  employees. 
^Yith  such  a  large  number,  it  is  no  wonder  that  corruption 
creeps  into  our  political  life.  Too  often  a  "  state  job  "  is  a 
position  wl:ich  people  seek  to  get  a  large  salary  for  little 
work.  A  prominent  writer  on  government  says,  "  State 
officials  should  work  as  many  days  per  week,  as  many 
days  per  year,  as  they  would  be  required  to  do  by  a 
corporation." 

The  House  of  Governors.  —  When  INIr.  Roosevelt  was 
President,  he  called  a  meeting  of  the  governors  of  the  various 
states  to  meet  in  Washington  to  discuss  topics  of  common 
welfare.  This  body  of  men  has  received  the  name  of  the 
"  House  of  Governors."  It  has  no  legal  status,  but  at  its 
meetings  the  governors  talk  over  the  best  means  of  making 
the  laws  of  the  different  states  agree  and  the  best  means  of 
carrying  out  the  provisions  of  the  national  laws.  They 
also  form  model  statutes,  which  they  may  recommend  to  their 
different  states.  Ex-President  Wilson  has  said,  "The 
only  means  of  preventing  the  constant  increase  of  federal 
(national)  power  is  in  the  development  of  such  a  conference 
as  this." 


TIIK    STATK    KXKcnTIVKS  2S<> 

(^IIKSTIONS    lOlt     1\\  KSTICATION' 

1.  Wlu)  is  tlio  jjovcriior  of  your  st:ilc?  Wliiil  is  ijic  Icii-tli  of  his 
term  of  office  ?  How  diK-s  lils  s:iliiry  coiiiiJiirc  witii  tliiil  of  tlic  jjov^-rnnrs 
of  other  states? 

2.  Who  are  the  elected  ofiicials  of  your  state?  What  an-  thiir 
duties  ? 

3.  ComiKire  tlie  tiutic^s  of  the  clccteii  ofhcials  of  your  state  with 
similar  officials  of  the  county  and  of  the  comiumiity. 

4.  Make  a  list  of  some  of  the  more  important  ofH«-ial.s  aijpoiiitcd  hy 
the  governor  of  your  state  and  give  their  chief  duties. 

5.  Does  your  state  give  much  power  to  your  governor?  1  )o  you 
tliink  he  should  have  more  or  less  than  he  has?     Wiiy? 

6.  Does  your  govcTuor  have  the  veto  i)ower?  How  may  it  he  over- 
come? How  many  l)ills  did  he  veto  at  the  last  session  of  the  legisla- 
ture? 

7.  Who  succeeds  the  governor  if  lie  dies  or  is  removed  from  ofIi<'e? 
Who  acts  as  governor  if  the  governor  is  out  of  the  state? 

8.  Has  your  state  any  commissions?  How  did  their  memliers 
obtain  office?     What  are  their  duties? 

9.  Which  office  wotild  you  rather  hold,  that  of  the  governor  or  that 
of  a  state  judge?     Why? 

10.  Give  the  names  of  the  most  famous  governors  of  your  state. 
Write  a  composition  on  the  life  of  one  r)f  them. 

11.  What  power  does  the  governor  have  over  local  ofiicials? 

12.  Write  a  composition  on  one  of  the  following  subjects:  "My 
Ideal  Governor,"  "The  Greatest  Governor  of  my  State." 

13.  Make  an  outline  similar  to  the  one  at  the  end  of  ("hai)ter  X\  1 1, 
showing  the  chief  officials  of  the  state,  both  elective  and  a|)pointive. 

14.  What  sort  of  man  should  be  elected  as  lieutenant-governor? 
Why? 

15.  What  state  ollicial  has  charge  of  health,  of  protection,  of 
charities,  of  land,  of  lai)or,of  cai)ital,  etc.,  the  activities  you  have  studied 
earlier  in  the  book? 


CHAPTER   XX 
THE  PRESIDENT 

The  office. — Since  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution, 
the  United  States  of  America  has  had  twenty-eight  presidents. 
Of  this  number  four  may  be  called  great  men,  ^Yashington, 
Jackson,  Lincoln,  and  Roosevelt.  Others  of  our  great  states- 
men, Webster,  Clay,  Douglas,  and  Blaine,  have  been  dis- 
appointed in  their  ambition  to  become  the  chief  executive. 
One  of  the  reasons  why  such  great  men  as  those  mentioned 
have  been  unable  to  be  elected  to  this  high  office  was  be- 
cause they  were  in  public  life  so  much  that  they  had  made  too 
many  political  enemies  to  be  the  successful  candidate  of 
their  party.  However,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  no  one 
has  ever  been  elected  to  the  presidency  who  did  not  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree  rise  to  the  high  duty  demanded  of  him. 

Qualifications  and  salary.  —  The  President  of  the  United 
vStates  must  be  thirty-five  years  old,  and  a  natural-born 
citizen  who  has  lived  in  this  country  for  fourteen  years. 
His  term  of  office  is  four  years,  and  he  is  sometimes  re- 
elected. No  President  has  been  chosen  more  than  twice, 
for  it  has  virtually  become  a  part  of  the  unwritten  constitu- 
tion that  no  one  shall  serve  more  than  two  terms. 

The  salary  received  by  Washington  was  $25,000 ;  by  the 
time  Lincoln  came  to  office  it  had  been  raised  to  $50,000 ; 
and  Wilson  received  $75,000,  plus  $25,000  a  year  for 
traveling  expenses.     In  addition  to  the  salary,  the  Presi- 

290 


'I'llH    I'liKslDKXT 


291 


292  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

dent  has  the  use  of  the  executive  mansion,  more  commonly 
known  as  the  "  White  House,"  as  a  residence.  Congress 
also  makes  liberal  appropriations  for  the  care  of  the  White 
House,  for  automobiles  for  the  use  of  the  President,  for  fuel, 
greenhouses,  lighting,  and  grounds,  for  the  secretary  to  the 
President,  clerks  and  stenographers,  and  for  other  necessary 
expenses.  Including  the  President's  salary,  not  far  from 
$250,000  is  spent  by  the  national  go^•ernment  for  the  support 
of  the  chief  executive  and  the  care  of  his  home.  This 
amount  is  very  small,  however,  when  compared  to  the 
amounts  received  by  the  King  of  England,  or  the  President 
of  France. 

Election  of  the  President.  —  The  method  by  which  the 
President  is  elected  appears  somewhat  confusing.  The  men 
who  made  the  Constitution  did  not  have  confidence  in  the 
ability  of  the  people  to  elect  the  chief  magistrate  directly. 
On  this  account,  the  following  method  was  devised,  that  it 
might  place  the  elective  power  in  the  hands  of  those  who  were 
thought  to  be  more  able. 

(1)  Each  state  chooses  as  many  men  as  it  has  senators  and 
representatives  in  Congress,  who  are  called  electors.  The 
whole  body  of  these  men  is  known  as  the  Electoral  College. 

(2)  At  about  the  same  time  the  Electoral  College  is  chosen 
the  political  parties  nominate  their  candidate  for  the  presi- 
dency and  vice-presidency. 

(3)  On  election  da}-,  the  first  Tuesday  after  the  first  IMon- 
day  in  November,  the  people  vote  for  the  electors  of  their 
various  states. 

(4)  The  second  Monday  in  January  the  electors  elected 
by  the  people  at  the  November  election,  meet  at  the  capital 
of  their  state  and  cast  their  ballots  for  the  candidates  of  theii: 
party. 


TlIF,    l'Ki:siI)K\'T  2\yA 

(5)  Tlic  votes  of  the  electors  arc  llicn  sent  io  tlie  Senate 
of  the  United  States. 

(6)  On  the  second  Wcdnrsdax  of  l'(l>ni:ii>  tln'  president 
of  the  Senate  opens  tliese  votes  and  eonnts  tliciii  in  the 
presence  of  both  honses  of  Conjrress  and  declares  the  one 
elected  who  received  the  majority  of  votes. 

As  the  electors  vote  only  for  those  candidates  who  have 
been  nominated  by  their  party,  and  who  ha\e  really  been 
elected  at  the  preceding  election,  the  easting  of  the  votes  by 
the  Electoral  College  has  become  a  iik  ic  inattn-  of  foiin. 
The  College  is  "just  about  as  useful  as  the  two  buttons  on 
the  back  of  a  man's  coat,  put  tiiere  originally  to  sujjport  a 
sword  belt.  We  have  discarded  the  sword,  but  we  cling  to 
our  buttons." 

The  Electoral  College.  —  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  Electoral 
College  is  not  only  useless,  but  worsi'  than  useless,  as  it  has 
actually  worked  harm,  defeating  the  will  of  the  people  us 
expressed  at  the  November  electi(»n.  On  se\-eral  <teeasions 
the  candidate  who  has  recei\'ed  the  largest  popular  vote 
has  not  been  elected.  For  exain])ie,  in  Isss.  the  Kepubliean 
party  received  the  majority  of  \()tes  in  New  York  State. 
This,  of  course,  gave  the  votes  of  the  state  (thirty-six  in 
1888)  in  the  Eh^etoral  College  to  Mr.  Ilarris(»n,  and  were 
enough  to  elect  him.  though  .Mr.  ("Ie\  eland  had  a  total  of 
many  more  votes  of  the  j)eople  in  the  remainder  of  the 
states  than  Mr.  Harrison. 

If  no  candidate  is  cho.sen  by  the  ("ollege.  the  l're>id«'nt 
is  chosen  by  the  House  of  Uepresentatives,  each  state  having 
one  vote.  The  choice  is  made  from  the  tliree  eandiilatcs 
who  have  received  the  liighest  mnnber  of  votes.  Presidents 
Jefferson  and  .lolm  (^nincy  A. lam-  were  ele<-ted  in  this 
manner.     The  Senate  chooses  the  \  iee-l're>ident  in  the  same 


294  COMMUNITY  CiVlCS 

manner  as  the  House  chooses  the  President  in  case  of  no 
election,  except  that  only  the  two  highest  are  voted  on. 

The  inauguration.  —  The  newly  elected  President  takes 
office  on  March  4  of  the  year  following  the  November 
election.  The  President  who  is  retiring  escorts  his  successor 
to  the  Capitol,  where  the  President-elect  takes  the  oath  of 
office  in  front  of  a  large  multitude.  The  oath  is  usually 
sworn  to  before  the  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
the  United  States,  and  is  as  follows  : 

"  I  do  solemnly  swear  that  I  will  faithfully  execute 
the  office  of  President  of  the  I  nited  States,  and  will  to 
the  best  of  my  ability,  preserve,  protect,  and  defend  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States."  A  Bible  is  used  in 
administering  the  oath,  and  at  its  close  the  President 
kisses  its  open  page.  After  the  oath  is  taken,  the 
inaugural  address  is  given,  in  which  the  new  executive 
outlines  his  policies.  A  great  parade  is  usually  held,  and 
in  the  evening  a  magnificent  reception  is  given  at  the 
White  House. 

It  has  been  suggested  many  times  that  the  date  of  the 
inauguration  be  changed  until  later  in  the  year.  The 
weather  is  often  so  stormy  and  cold  that  many  who  have 
come  to  Washington  to  attend  the  exercises  have  contracted 
sickness  from  which  they  died.  One  President  is  said  to 
have  died  of  a  cold  caught  at  the  inauguration. 

Comparison  of  the  powers  of  President  and  governor.  — 
The  powers  of  the  President  may  be  compared  to  those  of  the 
governor  of  a  state  (see  Chapter  XIX).  Both  have  been 
elected  to  office  to  see  that  the  laws  are  obeyed,  each  is  in 
command  of  the  army  and  navy,  the  one  of  the  nation  and  the 
other  of  the  state.  Both  have  the  power  to  grant  reprieves 
and  pardons.     Both  have  the  power  to  send  messages  to  their 


'IMII':    I'UKSIDI'.NT 


2!).") 


respective  legislative   builics,  to  call  cxtni  sessions,  ami    to 
veto  bills. 

With  all  these  similarities,  we  must  ninciiilxr  that  the  gov- 
ernor is  but  one  of  the  several  cxt'cutiNc  olliccrxlcctccl  by  the 
people,  while  the  Presi- 
dent, in  company  with 
the  \'ice- President,  is 
the  only  executi\e  officer 
elected  by  the  people  as 
a  nation,  and  as  we  shall 
see,  he  has  the  jiower  of 
appointing  the  other  ex- 
ecutive officers  of  the 
national  government. 
Because  of  this  he  is  held 
responsible  for  the  work- 
ing of  the  government 
as  the  governor  cannot 
be  under  the  ])resent 
system.  Then,  too,  the 
power  of  the  President 
is  much  greater,  in  that 
he  is  the  executive  head 
of  all  the  states,  and, 
with  the  advice  and  consi>nt  of  the  Smat*',  of  all  our  re- 
lations with  foreign  countries. 

His  powers.  — The  President  receives  his  pow<T  from  the 
Constitution,  the  laws  which  Congress  passes,  treaties  with 
foreign  nations,  and  from  the  customs  and  usjigt-s  which 
have  grown  up  since  the  coiuitry  was  formed. 

Like  the  go\-erni>r,  the  Pn'sideiit  di\i<l<-  hi^  powrr-  into 
three    classes,    executive,    legislative,    and    jn<li<ial.     ilis 


lountiy  aj  l/r.  A.  u.  Hottiimm 

The  Washington   Moni'Ment 

riie  monument  to  President  Wmthington, 
at  V.'aahinKton.  D.  C. 


296  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

executive  powers  include  command  of  the  militia  of  the  states 
and  the  national  army  and  na\  y  ;  the  execution  of  the  laws 
passed  by  Congress ;  the  power  to  make  treaties  with  foreign 
nations,  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  and  to 
receive  the  representatives  of  other  nations ;  the  appoint- 
ment of  officials  ;  and  in  general  securing  the  obedience  of  the 
people  to  the  laws  of  the  nation. 

Presidents  who  have  been  forced  to  use  their  war  powers 
have  found  them  very  far-reaching.  "  Congress  can  make 
him  almost  a  dictator."  President  Lincoln,  during  the 
Civil  War,  and  President  Wilson,  during  the  war  against  Ger- 
many, exercised  far  greater  powers  than  any  other  President, 
greater  even  than  a  European  king  or  queen.  This  is 
necessary  in  time  of  great  danger,  for  one  man  with  great 
power  can  obtain  results  better  than  a  body  of  men.  Presi- 
dent Wilson,  through  powers  granted  him  by  Congress, 
appointed  boards  responsible  to  him  alone  for  the  execution 
of  the  many  duties  war  brings.  If  his  appointees  did 
not  get  results,  they  were  replaced  by  men  who  could.  In 
conquered  territory  the  President  may  appoint  the  necessary 
officials  for  the  establishment  of  order.  In  time  of  peace  the 
chief  executive  may  use  the  militia  of  the  states  or  the  regular 
army  to  secure  the  faithful  execution  of  the  laws.  Presi- 
dent Wilson  sent  the  militia  of  the  states  to  the  IMexican 
border  to  keep  the  peace  there.  It  was  first  necessary, 
however,  to  swear  it  into  the  service  of  the  nation.  When 
there  was  interference  with  the  United  States  mail  during  a 
strike  in  Chicago,  President  Cleveland,  in  spite  of  the  protest 
of  the  governor,  sent  troops  to  Illinois  to  restore  order.  Wash- 
ington sunnnoned  the  militia  to  suppress  the  Whiskey  Rebel- 
lion. When  the  country  is  in  danger,  there  is  practically 
no  check  upon  the  power  of  the  President  except  Congress. 


THE    PRKSIDKNT  LMI? 

Appointment  of  officials.  Tlic  I'rcsidcnt  appoints  many 
officials  to  see  that  tlu'  business  of  the  nation  is  carried  on 
and  that  the  laws  are  executed.  This  is  one  of  his  nioKt 
important  powers,  and  the  one.  also,  that  l)rinj,'s  hitn  the 
most  annoyance.  From  the  day  of  his  inau;,'urati(»n  he  is 
surrounded  by  a  crowd  of  office  .seekers,  i  )urinj;  the  admin- 
istration of  Andrew  Jackson  the  "  spoils  system  "  was  be;;un. 
"Turn  the  rascals  out,"  and  "to  the  \iet..rs  belonj;  the 
spoils  ■'  said  the  newcomers  to  office.  I'lifortunately  this 
custom  has  been  followed  by  each  admimstration.  .\fter 
the  murder  of  President  (larfield  in  a  disipiMiintcd  nffiec 
seeker,  ()ffice-<;ettin<;  was  placed  very  laruel\-  in  the  hands  of 
the  Civil  Service  Commi.ssion.  This  is  a  body  of  men  which 
conducts  the  examination  of  those  who  wish  to  hold  office. 
The  office  goes  to  the  one  whom  the  examination  show>  to  be 
best  qualified. 

The  President  appoints  his  cabinet,  our  repre>etitati\-es 
in  foreifjn  countries,  the  judi^es  of  the  .""^upreme  ("ourt.  and 
more  than  six  thousand  other  officials.  Most  of  tho.sc 
appointed  by  the  President  must  be  confirmed  by  the  Senate. 
On  the  other  hand  the  President  has  the  power  of  removing 
the  majority  of  officials  he  has  appointed  if  they  are  not 
satisfactory.  At  the  present  day  tlu-re  are  few  remo\als 
unless  the  official  is  exceedingly  inefficient. 

Legislative  power  of  the  President. — The  lei:i-I;iti\p 
powers  of  the  I'rcsidcnt  are  mostl\-  ad\  isory.  In  his  anmial 
message  and  in  whatever  sf)ecial  mes.siiges  he  may  find  it 
necessary  to  send  to  Congress,  he  suggests  laws  that  sln»uld  Im- 
passed,  or  informs  the  legislati\"e  body  of  the  condition  of  the 
country,  that  it  may  pass  the  necessary  laws.  The  iVesident 
also  exerts  a  very  direct  influence  on  N-gi^lation  by  hi>  jxt- 
sonal  conferences  with  the  leaders  of  Congress  and  by  Ids 


298  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

appeals  to  the  people.  President  Wilson  succeeded  in 
getting  a  number  of  important  laws  passed  in  this  manner 
when  there  was  much  party  wrangling  in  Congress. 

In  his  Autobiography  President  Roosevelt  says,  "  In 
theory  the  Executive  has  nothing  to  do  with  legislation.  In 
practice  as  things  now  are,  the  Executive  is  or  ought  to  be 
peculiarly  representative  of  the  people  as  a  whole.  As 
often  as  not,  the  action  of  the  Executive  offers  the  only 
means  by  which  the  people  can  get  the  legislation  they 
demand  and  ought  to  have.  Therefore  a  good  Executive 
under  the  present  conditions  of  American  political  life  must 
take  a  very  active  interest  in  getting  the  right  kind  of  legis- 
lation, in  addition  to  jierforming  his  executive  duties  with  an 
eye  single  to  the  public  welfare.  More  than  half  my  work 
as  Governor  [of  New  York  State]  was  in  the  direction  of 
getting  needed  and  important  legislation.  I  accomplished 
this  only  by  arousing  the  people  and  riveting  their  attention 
on  what  was  done."  When  he  became  President,  Mr.  Roose- 
velt was  successful  in  carrying  out  many  of  his  most  im- 
portant policies  by  this  method. 

The  veto  power  of  the  President.  —  The  veto  powder  of  the 
President  is  not  exercised  often,  but  it  is  the  most  direct 
method  of  control  of  legislation  in  his  hands.  Very  often 
the  fear  of  the  threat  of  the  use  of  the  veto  power  is  sufficient 
to  kill  bad  legislation.  A  bill  vetoed  by  the  President  may 
be  passed  over  his  veto  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  each  House 
of  Congress.  During  our  entire  history  there  have  been 
about  five  hundred  vetoes,  three  hundred  of  which  were 
vetoes  by  President  Cleveland  of  bad  pension  legislation. 

Judicial  powers  of  the  President.  —  As  a  judge,  the  Presi- 
dent may  grant  reprieves  and  pardons  in  a  manner  similar  to 
the  governor  (see  Chapter  XIX),  except  that  he  may  act  only 


TIIK    PURRIDKXT  200 

in  cases  cominji;  under  t'cdci-iil  l;i\v.  Ilr  camiot  pardon  in  case 
of  an  impeachment.  He  also  has  the  power  of  cominntin^ 
sentences  and  of  jj;rantinf;  an  amnesty,  a  form  of  pardon 
which  for<i;ives  a  l)ody  of  people  rather  than  one  person. 

"The  American  presi(h-nc\-  is  praise\vorth.\  for  its  sim- 
plicity. .  .  .  The  ])resident  has  no  hi^di-soundin^'  title. 
He  appoints  thousands  of  officers  .  .  .  and  yet  never  wears 
a  imiform,  even  as  the  head  of  tlie  army.  .Nevertheless 
the  position  is  one  of  great  dignity  an<l  honor.  I'ew  puhlic 
men  have  been  free  from  the  pleasing  thought  that  the 
presidency  might  come  to  them.  .  .  .  The  president  is 
not  only  tiie  official  head  of  the  go\enuneiit ,  and  its  most  dis- 
tinguished ])ersonage  ;  he  is,  on  the  whole,  the  most  powerful 
factor  in  American  government." 

QUESTIO.NS    FOK    I.WKSTIC.XTION' 

1.  Write  a  composition  on  the  life  of  the  preM-nt  President. 

2.  Name  a  President  who  has  really  been  elected  hy  the  vote  of  tlie 
people  hut  not  by  the  Electoral  Collejje.     How  couM  this  Ix-? 

3.  Write  a  description  of  the  inaufjiiration  ccremonii-s  of  the  Presi- 
dent, and  make  a  report  to  the  class. 

4.  What  is  meant  by  "iinplietl  iinwcr-"?  What  ■"implied  powiTs" 
has  the  Pre~ident  ? 

fi.  What  were  some  of  the  extra  jiowcrs  civm  Prc^idnil  Lincoln  and 
President  Wilson  dnrin<i  a  time  of  war? 

6.  How  many  electors  may  a  state  have?  How  many  has  your 
state  ? 

7.  Wliat  similar  powers  have  the  Presiiient  and  the  j;ovfrnor  t>f  your 
state?  The  President  and  the  mayor  of  your  city?  Tlie  President  nnd 
the  sheriff  of  your  county '! 

5.  Do  you  think  a  President  should  consider  the  i)olitical  |iarty  of 
those  whom  he  a])points  to  office?     Why? 

9.  Do y<m  think  the  salary  of  the  President  is  larp-  enouKh  f     Why  ? 

10.  Does  the  President  use  his  pardoning'  pow.-r  more  in  |M-niv  or  in 
war  time?  Can  you  tell  tlie  story  of  any  of  tli-  pardon>  of  (he 
President  ? 


300  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

11.  Do  you  think  the  President  should  wear  a  uniform  as  com- 
mander of  the  army  and  the  navy  ?     Why  ? 

12.  "  The  President  is  the  most  powerful  factor  in  American  govern- 
ment."    Show  that  this  statement  is  true. 

13.  What  President  used  his  veto  powers  very  largely ?     Why? 

14.  Who  was  William  L.  Marcy,  who  said  "to  the  victors  belong 
the  spoils"? 

15.  Make  a  report  to  the  class  on  the  work  of  the  Civil  Service 
Commission. 

10.    May  the  salary  of  the  President  be  increased  during  his  term 
of  office?    Why? 


CIIAITKR    XXI 
THE  PRESIDENT  S  ADVISERS 

The  activities  of  the  federal  j,M)vcnmu'nt  iiuist  of  course 
cover  a  much  hirger  field  than  our  local  or  our  state  p)V('rn- 
ments.  Just  as  we  are  iiu'uiltcrs  of  a  family  and  have  certain 
relations  with  each  other  and  with  those  outside  the  family 
circle,  so,  as  a  nation  composed  of  many  states,  we  have  a  sim- 
ilar relationship.  p]ach  state  finds  many  ])rol»lems  of  com- 
mon interest,  problems  to  be  solved  for  the  comuKui  j;ood  of 
all.  The  makers  of  the  Constitution  {)laced  the  care  of  such 
common  problems  in  the  hands  of  the  federal  j^ovennnent. 

Just  as  the  family  is  a  part  of  many  families  joined  to- 
gether to  make  up  the  local  conununity.  the  t(»\vn  or  the  city, 
so  is  our  nation  one  of  the  family  of  nations  relatitl  throu^di 
mutual  interest. 

The  work  of  the  federal  fjovernnient  in  supervisinj;  these 
activities  has  been  divided  into  ten  ditferent  departments. 
At  first  there  were  four,  but  as  the  nation  <;rew,  its  activities 
increased  and  others  were  added.  <  )f  lir--t  importance  is  the 
department  that  takes  care  of  the  relations  between  the 
states,  bi'tween  the  states  and  the  federal  covermnent,  and 
between  the  federal  government  and  fon-ii:n  nation-^.  We 
know  it  as  the  Department  of  State. 

Domestic  activities  of  the  Department  of  State.  if  a 
governor  wishes  federal  troojjs  to  suppress  \ioleiKf  that 
has  gone  beyond  the  control  of  the  state  authorities,  or  if 

301 


302  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

he  wishes  a  foreign  government  to  give  up  a  criminal  who 
has  fled  to  its  protection,  he  makes  the  request  through  the 
Department  of  State,  Through  this  department  amendments 
to  the  Constitution  are  certified,  correspondence  between  the 
states  and  the  federal  government  is  carried  on,  the  admission 
of  new  states  is  proclaimed,  and  the  laws  passed  by  Congress 
are  published. 

Differing  from  all  the  other  departments  of  the  govern- 
ment, which  have  to  give  account  of  all  money  spent,  this 
department  has  a  fund  of  $100,000  at  its  disposal  which 
need  not  be  accounted  for.  This  private  fund  is  used  in 
secret  work  of  the  department,  so  that  what  it  learns  may 
not  be  known  to  other  nations.  It  also  pays  for  the  expense 
of  entertaining  foreign  guests  of  the  nation,  as  was  the  case 
when  General  Joft're  and  Mr.  Balfour  came  with  French  and 
English  missions  to  confer  with  our  government  concerning 
carrying  on  war  against  Germany.  AH  this  work  may  be 
called  its  domestic  activities  as  opposed  to  its  much  wider 
field,  our  relations  with  foreign  governments. 

Relations  with  foreign  nations.  —  In  order  that  the  federal 
government  may  have  the  proper  knowledge  of  conditions 
in  other  nations,  and  in  order  to  maintain  pleasant  relations 
with  them,  the  United  States  sends  representatives  to  all 
foreign  nations  unless  we  are  at  war  with  tiiem.  On  the 
other  hand  all  foreign  nations  maintain  representatives  at 
Washington.  Our  representatives  are  appointed  by  the 
President,  with  the  consent  of  the  Senate,  and  are  known 
as  ambassadors,  ministers,  or  consuls,  according  to  the 
country  to  which  they  are  sent  or  the  duties  they  perform. 

In  general  it  is  the  duty  of  an  ambassador  to  promote  the 
interest  of  the  I  nited  States  in  every  way.  He  protects 
American  citizens  abroad,  and  under  the  direction  of  the 


THE    PliKsiDFAT'S    ADVISKRS  3(« 

home  governiiKMit.  forniiihitcs  treaties  hctwccii  the  I'liitcd 
States  and  the  eountn-  to  wliicli  lie  is  sent. 

An  anil)assa(l<)r's  salary  is  Si  7. ")<•(),  hut  since  our  rcprocnta- 
tive  mnst  he  prominent  sociaiJx  and  do  iniieli  entertaining, 
very  few  poor  men  can  afford  to  he  anil)assa<l(>rs.  It  is  siiid 
that  our  ambassador  to  England  spends  more  than  .S"J5().(M)()  a 
year.  It  would  seem  that  as  rich  a  country  as  the  I'niteij 
States  could  afi'ord  to  ])ay  an  adefpiate  salar\  to  its  represent- 
atives abroad,  so  that  men  who  have  all  the  <|ualilications 
except  wealth,  might  receive  appointment  to  such  im|)ortant 
offices. 

We  have  usually  maintained  ambassadors  in  fourteen  of 
the  most  important  countries :  (Ireat  Britain.  France,  Italy, 
Spain,  Japan,  Argentina,  Brazil,  Chile,  Mexico,  (lermany, 
Russia,  Turkey,  and  Austria-Hungary,  hui  owim:  to  the 
conditions  arising  out  of  the  war,  no  ambassadors  are  now 
sent  to  the  four  last  named.  l{ecentl.\-  Peru  and  Belyimn 
have  been  placed  among  the  nations  to  which  ambas.sad<»rs 
are  sent.  When  the  nations  with  whom  wc  wen-  at  war 
shall  have  formed  stable  go\'ermnents.  it  is  probable  that 
ambassadors  will  again  be  sent  to  them.  In  ease  of  war  the 
affairs  of  the  nation  are  plaeeil  in  the  hands  of  a  neutral 
nation. 

Ministers  are  sent  to  the  nations  not  mentioned  abo\e. 
Their  duties  are  the  same  as  those  of  amba.s.sadors.  but 
their  salaries  are  less,  an<l  their  rard<  is  lower. 

Consuls  are  sent  to  all  the  im])ortant  eiti«'S  in  the  world. 
Probably  the  most  inaccessible  of  the  .\merican  c<»nsulates  is 
that  at  Chung  King,  far  back  in  the  interior  of  <  hina.  Much 
of  the  distance  is  traversed  in  a  small  river  boat,  jtulled  by 
Chinese  coolies,  who  are  paid  a  cent  a  day  each.  Consuls 
number    about    seven    lumdred.     They    have    been    called 


304 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


"  America's  lookouts  on  the  watch-towers  of  international 
trade."  Their  duties  are  many  and  varied.  Aside  from 
their  chief  duty  of  promoting  the  commercial  relations 
between  the  United  States  and  the  country  where  they  are 
stationed,  they  have  many  other  duties  to  perform.     When 


i'uurhii/  of  Ur.  A.  G.  liubliinon 


Pan  American  Building 
For  what  purpose  is  this  building  used  ? 

the  European  War  broke  out,  many  Americans  were  stranded 
in  Europe.  The  consuls  loaned  them  money  or  obtained 
it  for  them,  provided  them  with  the  necessary  papers  and 
transportation,  and  got  them  safely  out  of  the  warring 
countries.  So  many  are  the  duties  of  a  consul,  that  Mr. 
Hart,  in  his  Actual  Government,  tells  of  a  consul  who 
declares  he  was  called  upon  to  tell  where  real  American 


THE    PRKSIDKNTS    ADVISKIJS  I^Oo 

chewin.c:  tobacco  could  he  ol)t:iim'(!,  and  1(.  d.ri.i.-  how  th.- 
word  "  h()inl)shi'll  "  should  Ik*  i)roiiouuc('d. 

Consuls  have  some  judicial  powers.  They  investigate 
crimes  occurring  on  American  vessels  on  the  high  seas,  and 
in  some  countries  act  as  judges  in  cases  involving  Americans. 
Such  a  court  may  actually  condeuui  .Xnu-ricans  to  death, 
if  the  minister  of  the  couutry  when-  the  trial  o(eur>,  ajjproves 
of  the  conviction. 

Passports. — The  Department  of  State  issues  pa.ssports 
to  those  who  wish  to  travel  in  foreign  eoimtries.  A  |)ass- 
port  is  a  certificate  to  identify  a  citizen  of  the  liiited  States 
when  abroad,  and  to  give  him  the  protection  of  the  I'nited 
States  laws.  It  has  a  minute  description  of  the  person  to 
whom  it  is  issued  and  has  his  signature  It  b(;irs  the  im- 
print of  the  Great  Seal  of  the  United  States.  The  depart- 
ment keeps  a  record  of  the  marriages  of  all  American  citi/ens 
which  take  place  before  a  consul,  and  also  of  all  Americ-an 
children  born  abroad. 

The  Secretary  of  State. — All  of  these  activities  are  under 
the  control  of  the  chief  executi\e  officer  of  the  department, 
the  Secretary  of  State.  He  is  considered  the  ni(»st  important 
of  the  President's  advisers.  Like  the  other  executive  heads 
of  the  difi'erent  departments  he  is  a|)j)ointed  by  the  IVesident 
and  may  be  removed  by  hirn.  Iiider  his  care  are  many 
bureaus,  the  heads  of  which  are  responsible  to  the  Secretary, 
who  in  turn  is  resj)onsible  to  tlu'  President. 

The  duties  of  the  Secretary  of  State  of  the  national  go\  i-rn- 
ment  and  the  state  official  who,  in  many  states,  U'ars  the 
same  title,  mii.st  be  carefully  separated  isee  Chapter  XIX). 
Some  few  are  similar;  the  .state  secretary  has  charge  of  tlic 
great  seal  of  the  state,  the  natif)nal  secretary  has  charge  of  the 
Great  Seal  of  the  United  States,  which  imist  Ih'  afli.xrd  to  the 


306  COMMUNITY  CIVICS 

proclamations  of  the  President  and  to  other  important  docu- 
ments ;  both  officials  have  charge  of  the  archives,  the 
one  of  the  state,  and  the  other  of  the  nation ;  both  see  to 
the  publishing  of  the  laws.  Here  the  similarity  of  their 
duties  comes  to  an  abrupt  end. 

Finances  of  the  nation.  —  Next  in  importance  to  the 
foreign  affairs  of  the  nation  come  its  financial  affairs  (see 
Chapter  XXIII).  Large  sums  of  money  must  be  raised  to 
pay  for  the  many  activities  in  which  the  government  is 
engaged.  This  is  done  in  different  ways.  Some  is  raised 
from  the  duties  paid  on  goods  imported  into  the  country, 
some  comes  from  the  taxes  levied  by  Congress,  some  from  the 
internal  revenue  taxes,  some  from  the  income  tax.  Large 
sums  are  raised  by  bond  issues,  that  is,  money  loaned  to  the 
government  for  special  reasons.  The  "  Liberty  "  and  other 
loans  raised  to  help  carry  on  the  war  against  Germany  are 
examples  of  such  bonds.  All  who  loan  money  to  the  govern- 
ment in  this  manner  receive  interest  on  the  money  so  loaned. 
The  rate  paid  is  not  high,  for  the  credit  of  the  government  is 
so  good  that  a  high  rate  is  not  demanded. 

The  great  amount  of  money  received  from  various  sources 
is  spent  to  put  the  country  on  a  sound  financial  basis,  to  pay 
government  officials,  to  improve  the  rivers  and  harbors,  to 
pay  for  the  army  and  the  navy,  to  give  compensation  to  the 
soldiers  and  sailors  injured  in  the  service  of  their  country, 
to  pay  for  education,  for  interest  on  the  public  debt,  and 
for  all  the  infinite  number  of  things  that  exist  because  of  the 
financial  help  of  the  government. 

The  manufacture  of  money.  —  The  federal  government 
manufactures  the  paper  money,  postage  and  revenue  stamps, 
and  the  specie  which  are  in  circulation.  The  making  of  our 
paper  money  and  coins  is  a  very  interesting  process.     The 


TIIK    PKKSIDKXTS    ADVlSKRS  'M\7 

paper  usecl  is  made  of  linen  hy  a  seeret  process.  The  reeiix'  for 
making  the  ink  for  i)rinting  tlic  hills  is  also  a  p)\ernment 
secret.  The  plates  from  which  the  money  is  printed  are  mas- 
terpieces of  engraving.  It  takes  a  year  of  work  to  make  one  of 
the  original  plates.  Ahout  a  million  d(tllars'  worth  of  paj)rr  is 
printed  every  day,  and  in  more  than  (iftccn  >cars  only  one 
piece  of  paper  was  lost.  \ly  the  time  a  hill  i>  rfad>-  for  cir- 
culation it  has  been  counted  more  than  fifty  times.  When 
A  bill  is  worn  out  or  very  dirty  it  may  be  sent  back  to  the 
<lepartment  to  be  exchanged  for  a  new  one  or  to  be 
laundered.  The  old  bills  which  can  no  longer  \)v  put  in  lir- 
culation  are  destroyed. 

The  making  of  coins  is  no  less  interesting  than  the  mami- 
facture  of  bills.  The  metal  brought  to  the  treasury  i>  made 
pure  and  then  mixed  with  its  proper  amount  of  alloy  to  make 
it  hard.  It  is  then  worked  into  thin  bars  and  j)Ut  through  a 
giant  "cookie"  cutter  which  cuts  out  thousands  of  little 
yellow,  white,  or  bronze  cookies,  according  to  thr  coins  being 
made.  These  little  cookies  are  then  placed  in  a  huge  machine 
with  engraved  dies  above  and  below,  and  two  hmidred 
seventy-five  pounds  pressure  ai)iilied.  When  the  cookies 
come  out  they  are  money.  The  government  mints,  that  is, 
the  institutions  where  hard  money  is  manufactured,  are 
located  at  San  Francisco,  Denver,  Carson  ('it\-,  New  Orleans, 
and  Philadelphia. 

The  actual  caretaker  of  the  money  of  the  liiited  States  is 
the  treasurer.  His  name  will  be  foimd  on  all  bills  issu<'d 
by  the  government.  lie  receives  all  monies  and  pa\  >  them 
out  when  authorized  to  do  so. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  —The  dei)artment  which 
has  charge  of  the  finances  of  the  national  govenunent  is 
known  as  the  Department  of  the  Treasury.     Its  chief  exccu- 


308  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

tive  is  known  as  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  This  de- 
partment, as  all  others,  is  divided  into  many  bureaus,  each 
of  which  is  responsible  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

Curiously  enough,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  has  other 
duties  not  connected  closely  with  his  financial  duties.  He 
has  charge  of  the  life-saving  service,  the  public  health,  the 
marine  hospital  service,  and  the  construction  and  support  of 
public  buildings.  These  are  duties  that  have  remained  from 
the  time  when  there  were  but  few  departments.  In  addition 
to  these,  he  has  other  duties,  rather  remotely  connected  with 
his  financial  duties.  His  department  maintains  a  fleet  of 
armed  vessels  to  stop  smuggling  and  to  enforce  the  quaran- 
tine laws.  It  attempts  to  prevent  counterfeiting ;  and  it  is 
interesting  to  know  that  it  is  so  difficult  to  counterfeit  our 
money,  that  out  of  three  billion  dollars,  only  twelve  thousand 
dollars'  worth  of  bad  money  was  found.  Our  money  is  so 
closely  safeguarded  that  moving  picture  theaters  are  for- 
bidden to  show  films  which  exhibit  the  counterfeiting  of 
money. 

The  army.  —  A  very  large  proportion  of  the  money  which 
flows  into  the  treasury  is  expended  for  the  support  of  the 
army  and  the  navy.  Our  army  is  made  up  of  the  regulars, 
the  state  militia,  and  those  who  in  time  of  war  may  be 
drafted  into  the  service.  All  who  serve  in  the  army  must 
be  physically  fit ;  the  application  of  a  man  with  any  defect 
will  be  rejected.  Even  the  lack  of  four  molar  teeth  or  an 
imperfection  of  the  feet  will  cause  the  rejection  of  one  who 
wishes  to  serve  his  country  by  fighting.  During  the  war 
with  Germany,  vast  cantonments  were  erected  where 
drafted  men  were  concentrated  to  learn  modern  soldiering. 
Camps  were  established  for  the  training  of  civilians  for 
officers. 


TIIK    PIJKSIDKXT'S    ADVISKUS  :i()<> 

There  is  a  large  numl)er  of  riicii  in  the  active  fij,'litiiiK  foree; 
but  the  ratio  of  two  to  three  imist  hi-  iiiuiiitaiiied  hctwceu 
them  and  the  men  who  are  heliind  the  Hue,  road-huilders, 
eooks,horse-shoers,ambulaneeaiid  motor  repairers,  those  who 
disinfeet  and  repair  elothiii-:,  men  to  superintend  the  main- 


Cdiirlisu  iif  lAiut.  Juhn  flppfrly 

W.vii  Photograph  fiu»m  an  Aihi-lank 

The  illustration  shows  a  part  of  the  Hindi-nburK  Line.  Tho  smoky  8|>ot 
ill  the  center  of  the  picture  is  raused  by  the  explosion  of  a  shell.  Note  tho 
trenches.  Note  also  the  canal,  sui)posod  to  Ik*  unhrenkahie  until  it  was 
captured  by  the  men  of  the  27th  and  HOth  Divisions. 

tenance  of  a  pure  water  supply  and  to  perfect  .smitary  ar- 
rangements. Doctors  and  nurses  and  all  who  help  repair  the 
bodies  broken  !)>"  war  must  he  enrolled,  ."^o  it  is  seen  that  our 
armies  consist  of  a  mighty  host,  and  that  the  resp(»n.'^ibilities 
of  this  department  of  our  government  are  very  great. 

All  this  army  must  be  outfitted  with  uniforms  and  shoes. 


310 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


Guns  must  be  manufactured,  rifles,  cannon,  shells,  grenades, 
gas,  all  the  horrible  appliances  that  modern  warfare  has 
brought,  must  be  made  ready.  Airplanes  must  be  built, 
and  those  which  become  useless  must  be  replaced  constantly, 
for  the  modern  army  is  blind  without  its  airplane  scouts. 
In  the  matter  of  food  alone  it  is  easy  to  see  how  great  is  the 
task  of  the  War  Department      An  army  of   100,000  men 


Thk  Advance 

Infantry  behind  a  tank  as  it  advances  up  a  hill.      (The  soldiers  are  of  the 
107th  Infantry,  27th  Division.) 


require  a  daily  ration  of  50  ton§  of  meat,  50  tons  of  bread, 
50  tons  of  potatoes,  and  40  tons  of  other  foods.  When  we 
consider  that  the  army  consists  of  at  least  a  million  men,  the 
great  amount  of  work  only  to  feed  it  is  almost  more  than 
we  can  realize. 

Military  schools.  —  There  are  two  schools  maintained  by 
the  government  for  the  training  of  officers  for  the  army, 
the  Army  War  College,  and  the  Military  Academy  at  West 


TTIE    T'Ix'KSIl)KA-T-S    A  1  )VlSl':i{S 


:',  1 1 


Point.  The  former  is  ;i  sdiool  tor  dllicrrs.  wlio.  wli.-n  tlicy 
complete  the  courses  of  the  colh-^^r,.  siieeessfiill\ .  mjiy  he 
appointed  to  the  Geiieriil  Staff. 

The  I'liited  States  Mihtury  Academy  at  West  I'.. int. 
founded  in  1S()2,  is  the  most  famous  mihtary  a<-:id(in.\-  in 
the  world.  The  authorized  strenjith  of  the  cadets  is  |;;;{,S. 
These  come  from  the  various  rontrressional  districts,  some 
from  the  states  at  lari^e,  four  froin  the  ]>i>trict  (.f  ('olunihia. 


.vV^-^VW 


iiiurhsu  I'f  '■'I'lmnndiinl.  \\  <  \i  J-hItU 

Cuurs  oi"  (Jauets  at  Diikss  Paradk 
United  States  Military  Acadcinv.  West  Puint.  N.-w  V..rk. 

two  from  Porto  Kico,  four  from  the  I'hihp|)ines.  some  from 
the  United  States  at  large,  and  some  from  the  rejiidar  army 
and  the  national  ^uard.  The  rii^orous  course  of  iiistructi<»n 
requires  four  years  and  is  laru'cl.N  mathematical  and  pnv- 
fessional.  The  pay  of  a  cadet  is  SKLM.SO  per  >far.  an 
amount  which  coxcrs  the  cadet's  actual  iieed>,  an<l  In-  is  not 
permitted  to  receive  money  from  outside  source, '.  He  is 
required  to  wear  the  com|)lete  uniform  of  the  institution  at 
all  times  during  his  cadetship,  so  that  an  exceptional  dc- 


312  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

mocracy  is  effected  in  the  Corps  itself.  Appointees  to  the 
MiHtary  Academy  must  be  between  seventeen  and  twenty- 
two  years  of  age,  free  from  any  infirmity  which  may  unfit 
them  for  miHtary  service,  and  able  to  pass  the  equivalent 
mental  tests  for  entrance  into  a  first-class  college  or  univer- 
sity. In  1917  there  were  proportionately  so  fevv^  trained 
graduates  in  the  United   States,   that  it  was  necessary  to 


Courtesy  of  Commandant,  West  Point 
United  States  Military  Academy,  West  Point,  New  York 

give  them  temporarily  advanced  rank  in  order  to  meet  the 
needs  of  the  country  for  higher  commands. 

Army  medical  officers  have  done  much  important  work. 
Drs.  Reed,  Carrol,  and  Lazear  wiped  out  the  scourge  of 
yellow  fever  by  their  experiments  with  mosquitoes.  Dr. 
Gorgas  made  possible  the  digging  of  the  Panama  Canal  by 
his  wonderful  cleaning  up  of  the  Canal  Zone.  Others  have 
perfected  the  typhoid  inoculation,  so  that  this  former  scourge 
of  armies  is  no  longer  to  be  feared.  Dr.  Ryan  stopped  the 
scourge  of  typhus  in  the  Balkans  during  the  war  against  Ger- 


THE    PHKSIDKXT-S    A  DVlSKIfS  :^13 

many.     All    these    tliin<rs    liavc     hecn    ddiic    as    a    matter 
of  duty  and  not  for  i,dory  or  i)ay. 

Officials  of  the  War  Department.  Tlu'  rre>ident  is  the 
commander-in-chief  of  the  army,  but  the  1  )epartment  of  Wjir, 
through  its  executive  head,  the  Secretary  of  War.  is  in  active 
charge  of  it.  The  actual  work  of  sui>er\ising  and  urgani/ing 
the  army  is  in  the  hands  of  a  trained  hody  of  ollicers  known 
as  the  General  Staff.  It  ])rei)ares  plans  for  the  natinnal  de- 
fense and  for  the  neces.sary  movement  of  troops.  The  <  hief 
of  Staff  acts  as  military  advi.ser  to  the  President. 

The  navy. — The  making  of  a  na\y  such  as  the  I'nited 
States  needs  at  the  present  time  is  almost  as  great  a  task  as 
the  making  of  the  arm\'.  Fighting  ships,  from  the  battle- 
ship to  the  submarine  chaser,  must  be  built  and  kept  in 
proper  condition  for  fighting.  Men  nuist  be  enlisted  and 
food  and  clothing  made  ready  for  them.  Ammunition  mu>t 
be  supplied  and  frequent  target  practice  must  be  conducted. 
Those  soldiers  of  the  sea,  the  marines,  must  be  enlisted 
and  trained.  In  order  that  the  officers  of  tiie  fleet  rna\' 
have  absolutely  correct  time,  for  this  is  \-ery  necessary  in  the 
movement  of  the  various  ships,  the  Xavy  Department  main- 
tains a  naval  observatory  at  Washingtf)n. 

A  prominent  writer  on  government  says,  "  It  keeps  a 
great  master  clock  in  a  hermetically  sealed  case  in  an  isolated 
vault,  the  temperature  of  the  vault  never  being  allowed  to 
vary  more  than  the  hundredth  part  of  one  degree.  When 
the  temperature  in  the  vault  varies  the  two-hundredth 
part  of  a  degree  from  normal,  a  thermostat  autoiuatically 
turns  off  its  little  electric  .stove  (an  electric  light  bulb)  It 
often  switches  the  little  bulb  off  and  on  as  mtieh  as  a  dozen 
times  a  minute.''  Yet  with  all  this  wonderful  accuracy,  a 
careful  check  is  kept  uj)on  its   ])erformance   by   means  of 


314 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


Courtesy  of  Katy  DepartmerU 

U.  S.  S.  Nevada,  Guantanamo  Bay,  Cuba 

How  is  the  mast  used?     What  is  the  size  of  the  guns?     How  far  will  they 
shoot?     What  is  the  purpose  of  the  wires? 


TTTK    I>I{KS1DEXT"S   ADVISRRs  I! If) 

observations  of  tho  stars  made  at  the  (.hscrvatory.  Tlir  ,,|,- 
server  knows  the  exact  time  the  fixed  stars  on^rhf  t,,  i„.  .^^ 
certain  points  in  the  heavens.  When  this  is  ealeulaicd.  he 
regulates  the  clock  by  his  observations. 

The  United  States  Naval  Academy  at  .Vnnaix.lis  i^  main- 
tained to  educate  the  officers  for  the  navy  as  the  Mihtary 
Academy  at  West  Point  is  maintained  to  edueatr  (.fhcers 
for  the  army.  The  members  of  the  Naval  Academy  are 
appointed  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  on  the  >ame 
plan  as  the  cadets.  Each  is  commissioned  an  (ii>i;:n  at 
graduation. 

Officials  of  the  Navy  Department.  The  rr(si(h-nt  is 
commander-in-chief  of  the  navy  as  well  as  of  the  army. 
Like  the  Department  of  War,  the  Department  of  the  .\a\y 
has  an  executive  head,  the  Secretary  of  the  Nav\-.  TJie 
General  Board  of  the  navy  corresponds  to  the  Cieneral  Stall" 
of  the  army,  and  the  Naval  War  College  trains  officers  for 
the  General  Board  as  the  Army  College  does  for  the  (Jeneral 
Stafi'. 

The  legal  affairs  of  the  government.  —  It  sometimes 
happens  that  the  laws  i)asse(|  by  ( 'ongress  are  brokt-n.  l-'or 
example,  we  have  learned  in  a  pre\ions  chapter  that  «(Ttain 
combinations  of  capital  (see  Chapter  XIV)  are  illegal,  and 
that  the  government  prosecutes  those  wlio  disregard  this 
law.  Those  who  break  the  federal  laws,  —  counterfeiters, 
smugglers,  spies,  and  others,  —  are  sent  to  a  fcdcr.il  pri><>n. 
A  secret  service  is  maintained  by  the  government  to  search 
out  those  who  break  these  laws.  All  this  work  i^  dune  by 
the  Department  of  Justice,  who.se  executive  head  is  the 
Attorney-General,  lie  seldom  appears  in  court  personally, 
but  the  cases  are  usually  prepared  by  his  assistants.  Wy 
virtue  of  his  office  he  is  the  director  of  the  federal   prisons, 


316 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


supervises  the  freeing  of  prisoners  on  parole,  and  may 
recommend  pardons. 

The  Post-Office  Department.  —  The  work  of  the  Post- 
master-General has  already  been  studied  in  the  chapter  on 
Communication.  Turn  to  Chapter  VIII  and  review  the 
very  important  work  that  he  does. 

Department  of  the  Interior.  —  After  the  United  States 
had  gained  a  large  amount  of  territorv  at  the  end  of  the 


Cuurlisij  uf  llic  Cuinminiiiun  of  Fine  Arts 

The  New  National  Museum  (on  the  Mall),  Washington,  D.  C. 


Mexican  ^^  ar,  need  arose  for  some  government  department 
to  look  after  the  questions  which  came  from  the  acquisition 
of  the  new  territory.  For  this  reason  the  Department  of 
the  Interior  was  organized.  At  the  same  time  other  depart- 
ments of  the  government  turned  over  to  the  new  secretary 
functions  which  did  not  seem  properly  to  belong  to  their 
departments.  The  result  is  that  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior 
has  under  his  charge  a  large  number  of  the  activities  of  the 
federal  government,  activities  which  are  entirely  different 


THE    PRESIDEXT'S    ADVISERS  317 

in  character,  and  none  of  which  seem  related  to  the  others. 
Among  his  chief  duties  is  the  control  of  the  general  hiiid 
office,  the  pension  office,  the  hurciiii  of  education,  Indian 
affairs,  the  reclamation  siTvicc,  the  jjatent  ollici',  the  geologi- 
cal survey,  and  tiie  bureau  of  mines. 

The  general  land  office.  Perhaps  the  most  important 
bureau  of  the  department  is  that  of  the  general  land  office. 
This  patrols,  surveys,  and  sells  all  the  i)ublic  lands  of  the 
nation.  At  the  present  time  the  go\-ernment  will  give  for  a 
small  fee  a  IGO-acre  farm  to  any  citizen  who  will  improve 
and  cultivate  the  land  for  five  years.  It  is  because  of  the 
very  liberal  land  policy  of  the  government  that  our  e»»un- 
try  has  been  so  quickly  settled. 

TJie  pension  bureau.  During  the  years  the  United  States 
has  been  a  nation  it  has  paid  out  nearly  four  billions  of 
dollars  in  pensions,  fourteen-fifteenth s  of  which  have  been 
due  to  the  Civil  War.  All  this  money  has  been  spent 
by  the  pension  bureau  of  the  l)ej)artment  of  the  Interior. 
It  is  only  recently  (1911)  that  the  last  pensit)ner  of  the  ^^a^ 
of  1812  died.  In  that  same  year  the  daughter  of  a  soldier  of 
the  American  Revolution  was  still  receiving  a  pension.  The 
accepted  pension  claims  are  so  numerous  that  the  docuini-nts 
W'cigh  more  than  a  thousand  tons. 

The  education  bureau  gathers  information  concerning 
the  educational  systems  of  the  (liU'erent  states  ami  of  foreign 
countries.  If  some  .successful  exiieriment  in  education  is 
tried,  a  full  report  of  it  may  be  found  in  the  records  of  this 
department. 

The  pafrnf  office  gives  t<»  inxcntors  the  exclusive  right 
to  manufacture  and  sell  their  inventions  for  a  period 
of  seventeen  years.  Such  a  permit  is  known  as  a  patent. 
Each  one  who  applies  must  send  a  stated  sum  an<l  a  in.MlcI 


318 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


or  drawing  of  his  invention.  A  patent  is  granted  if  it  does 
not  infringe  on  any  previous  patent.  Patents  have  been 
applied  for  on  very  curious  things.  A  minister  asked  for  a 
patent  on  an  apparatus  he  had  invented  to  find  keyholes 
in  the  dark.  Many  devices  to  secure  perpetual  motion  have 
been  submitted.     The  patent  oflBce  has  granted  patents  on 


Courtesy  of  Forest  Service,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Separating  Yellow  Pine  Seed  from  the  Cones 

thousands  of  inventions  of  the  greatest  use  to  mankind. 
One  has  only  to  think  of  the  cotton  gin,  the  numerous 
electrical  devices,  the  airplane,  and  the  automobile  to 
understand  the  Nalue  of  inventive  genius,  and  to  know  that 
it  should  be  protected. 

The  geologic  survey  makes  maps  of   the    surface   of   the 
country  and  its  geologic  formation.     If  the  automobilist 


TIFK    I'I{KSII)FATS    ADNlsKRs 


310 


wishes  to  have  a  correct  map  <.f  ;iiiy  sccfimi,  1,,.  may  ..ht.iin 
from  the  government  a  map  of  the  i);iii  .,r  tlir  ((.imtry 
in  which  he  wishes  to  travel.  This  huivaii  is  (••.n.itKtiMg 
many  experiments,  also.  It  has  hrniiirlil  aln.ut  the  riiaini- 
facture  of  "  briquettes  "  from  the  coal  dust  and  wa.ste  coal 


-X 


Courlfsy  of  Fomt  Scrrlct.  HnnhintiluH,  U.  C. 
WOKK    OF    FoHKST    RaNUEHS 

Forest  rangers    sowing  yellow    pine  .seed  during  a  snow  Mtorni.     N<ito  the 
snow  on  the  rangers'  hat-s. 


at  the  mouth  of  the  mines.  The  great  use  of  steel  and  ccinrnt 
construction  is  due  in  a  large  measure  to  the  exptTiinents 
conducted  by  this  i)ureau. 

The  hurcaii  of  vi.inc.s  investigates  the  most  economical 
methods  of  mining,  and  conducts  experiments  to  j>rcv<'nt 
explosions  from  gas  or  dust  in  the  mines.     Several  .stations 


320 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


have  been  established  for  the  improvement  of  rescue  work  in 
the  mines,  and  experiments  are  continually  being  made  to 
find  the  best  varieties  of  life-saving  apparatus. 

The  bureau  of  Indian  affairs  has  charge  of  all  the  In- 
dian tribes  except  those  of  Alaska.  It  takes  care  of  their 
money,  land,  schools,  and  general  welfare.  As  soon  as  the 
Indian  shows  that  he  is  able  to  perform  his  duties  as  a  good 


Cuurtesy  of  United  Stales  Reclamttlon  Service 
Aerowrock  Dam,  Boise  Project,  Idaho 


citizen,  he  is  "  made  to  hoe  his  own  row  "  in  the  same  manner 
as  any  other  American  citizen.  Perhaps  the  richest  people 
in  the  world  are  the  Osage  Indians.  There  are  over 
2000  Indians  in  the  tribe.  They  own  nearly  two  million 
acres  of  fine  farm  land  and  have  about  $9,000,000  in  ready 
money.  At  the  end  of  twenty-five  years,  each  individual 
will  receive  his  share  if  he  shows  himself  capable  of  taking 
care  of  it. 


THE    PRKSIDFA-T'S    ADVISKRS 


321 


The  rcclamaiion  .service  iniikcs  "  t\v(»  Madts  of  j^ras.s  ^row 
where  none  grew  before."  I'ncler  tlie  phiiuiiii;;  of  ^Govern- 
ment engineers,  wonderful  dams  and  irrigation  works  have 
been  built  to  hold  and  distribute  water  to  dry  sections  of  the 
country.  Many  millions  of  acres  will  be  reclaimed  in  this 
manner.     The  land  so  reclaimed  is  sold  in  fort\  -acre  tracts  for 


Courlisv  iif  IniiKi  .VM.-.  >  /,• 


Row  OF  York  Imperial  Apple  Trees.  Ashenfelteu  Ohchahd. 
NEAR  Montrose 

These  are  grown  on  land  irriKatod  by  wat«r  from  the  rn(H)miiahKrp  project 
in  Ci)lorado.     (See  text.) 


moderate  sums,  and  a  small  tax  is  le\  ied  for  tlu-  um-  of  the 
water.  As  the  money  is  paid,  it  is  used  by  the  goM-rnnient 
to  build  new  works  elsewhere. 

Some  wonderful  feats  of  engineering  have  aceomi)lishe<l 
the  perfection  of  these  irrigation  systems.  The  rncoinpaligre 
project  is  a  tyi)ical  example.  In  order  to  survey  the  route, 
men  swung  by  ropes  over  i)recipices.  clung  ti.  erevicrs  in 


322  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

the  rocks,  and  floated  down  unexplored  rivers  on  rubber 
rafts.  As  a  result  of  the  survey,  a  tunnel  six  miles  long  was 
cut  underneath  a  mountain,  and  the  waters  of  the  Gunnison 
River  were  sent  into  the  Uncompahgre  Vallej'  to  irrigate 
this  great  arid  section. 

Department  of  Agriculture.  —  Agriculture  is  the  basis  of 
the  wealth  of  the  nation.  Whatever  will  help  the  farmer  to 
produce  larger  crops,  show  him  new  or  easier  methods  of 
work,  develop  new  crops,  or  eliminate  the  pests  or  dis- 
eases which  cause  him  to  lose  millions  of  dollars  each 
year,  will  add  to  the  wealth  of  the  nation  and  therefore  to  its 
greatness.  The  government  maintains  in  various  parts  of  the 
country,  experiment  stations  where  all  kinds  of  agricultural 
experiments  are  tried.  Cattle  are  experimented  on  to  make 
them  give  more  milk  or  put  on  more  flesh.  Foodstuffs  are 
tested  for  their  purity  and  life-sustaining  qualities.  Grains 
and  soils  are  tested  to  find  out  the  methods  of  forcing  in- 
creased yields.  Studies  are  made  of  the  many  destroying 
insects  to  find  a  remedy  for  their  destructiveness.  Xot 
only  insects  but  animal  pests  are  fought.  The  rat  that 
carries  the  plague,  the  starling  that  destroys  crops,  chip- 
munks, mice,  and  prairie  dogs  that  demolish  the  work  of 
reforestation  are  destroyed.  Forest  rangers  patrol  the  forests, 
watch  for  and  fight  fires,  drive  out  timber  thieves,  and  con- 
trol the  cutting  of  lumber. 

Men  are  maintained  in  all  parts  of  the  world  to  search 
for  new  or  valuable  crops  that  may  be  introduced  into 
the  United  States.  The  government  has  brought  dates  from 
Egypt  and  the  desert  of  Sahara,  durum  wheat  from  Russia, 
millet  from  Siberia,  wild  peaches  from  China,  and  many  other 
plants  from  every  region  of  the  world,  all  of  which  have 
added  many  millions  of  dollars  to  the  wealth  of  the  nation. 


THE    PRESIDENTS    ADVlSKiiS 


;vj;i 


The  g(>\('nnn»'iit  also  saves  millions  of  <l(iliar->'  wdrtli  of 
property  each  year  by  inaiiitaiiiiii},'  the  wcatlicr  hiirtaii. 
Each  year  its  warnings  concerning  storms,  frosts,  and  IIimmIs 
are  sent  broadcast. 

.  The  government  has  placed  this  work  under  the  care  of  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture.  Tiidcr  his  direction  the  experi- 
ments tried  in  his  department    avc  reported    to    ( 'ongrcss. 


CuU-Il,,u  of  FoTttl  Srrrlff.  HVm'iIuj/ti.  />    C. 

A  Good  Catch 
The  result  of  fish  propagation  l».v  the  nepartmciit  of  Coinniorco. 

These  are  i)ul)lished  by  the  go\  fninicnt  and  nia\  be  obtainc<! 
free  by  any  who  desire  tluin.  I'nder  his  care  also  is  the 
free  distribution  of  seeds  of  flowers  and  vegetables. 

The  Department  of  Commerce.  One  (tf  the  important 
acts  which  the  federal  go\  erunient  jterfornis  i-  to  make  a 
numbering  of  the  people  every  ten  years.  This  is  ealle<l 
"  taking  the  census."  As  the  number  of  representatives  in 
Congress  is  based  on  the  census,  its  importance  is  readily 


324  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

seen.  The  100,000,000  and  more  cards  which  represent 
the  people  in  the  United  States  would  make  a  stack  more 
than  ten  miles  high.  The  first  census  cost  only  about  $44,000, 
but  the  one  taken  in  1920  cost  more  than  $20,000,000. 

This  work  is  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  Com- 
merce. In  addition  to  this,  he  has  other  duties.  He  attends 
to  the  regulation  of  standards  and  measures  and  the  propa- 
gation and  distribution  of  fish.  He  maintains  lighthouses, 
supervises  navigable  waters  within  the  boundaries  of  the 
United  States,  and  directs  steamboat  inspection,  including 
the  enforcement  of  the  laws  concerning  wireless  telegraphy. 

The  Department  of  Labor.  —  You  remember  that  the 
story  of  Pietro  told  of  his  coming  to  America  from  Italy,  of 
his  entrance  into  the  United  States,  and  of  the  naturalization 
of  his  father  (see  Chapter  IX).  Immigration  and  naturaliza- 
tion are  the  two  most  important  bureaus  of  the  Department 
of  Labor.  We  have  read  also  of  the  efforts  made  by  the 
government  to  help  the  children  by  shortening  working  hours, 
bettering  working  conditions,  etc.  This  is  another  bureau 
of  the  Department  of  Labor.  In  general  this  department 
through  its  executive  head,  the  Secretary  of  Labor,  has 
charge  of  all  that  pertains  to  the  welfare  of  the  wage  earners 
of  the  country.  It  gathers  labor  statistics,  tries  to  settle 
quarrels  between  employer  and  employee,  and  endeavors 
to  advance  the  opportunities  for  profitable  employment  of 
those  who  work. 

The  Cabinet.  —  The  heads  of  these  ten  departments, 
the  Secretary  of  State,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  the 
Secretary  of  War,  the  Attorney-General,  the  Postmaster- 
General,  the  Secretary  of  the  Xavy,  the  Secretary  of  the 
Interior,  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  the  Secretary  of  Com- 
merce, and  the  Secretary  of  Labor,  make  up  the  cabinet  of 


THE   PRESIDEXT'S   ADVISERS  :VJ5 

the  President.  If  both  the  President  ami  tlir  \i(r-|'n>i(|riit 
should  die  or  be  iinahle  to  fulfill  the  duties  of  thr  nflict-  of 
President,  the  first  seven  of  the  sct-rctiiries  would  >uecccd  in 
the  order  named.  This  is  the  order  in  whieli  the  d(j)art- 
ment  heads  were  appointed. 

The  choosing  of  the  Cabinet.  —  When  a  new  Pn-idcnt 
takes  ofliee,  \\v  appoints  tlic  iir  inbers  of  his  ( 'abinet.  Ahno.>t 
always  an  entirely  new  body  of  men  is  eliosi'n,  for  sinee  the 
President  is  responsible  for  the  j)oliey  of  the  government, 
he  wishes  to  have  as  his  ehief  achisers  men  whom  he  knows 
and  can  trust.  Two  notable  exceptions  to  this  rule  have 
been  the  retention  of  William  Wirt  as  .\tt<trn(y-(  Imcral  from 
1817  to  1S29,  and  Albert  C.allatin  as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
from  ISOl  to  1814.  If  a  new  party  comes  into  power,  a 
complete  change  of  the  Tabinet  is  con^iderefj  especially 
desirable.  The  men  chosen  are  c«)nfirme<l  by  the  S<Miate, 
though  this  is  usually  a  matter  of  form.  They  serve  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  President. 

As  Secretary  of  State,  the  Pre>ident  often  <lioose'>  the  man 
wdio  was  most  responsible  for  his  election,  or  who  w;ls  a 
candidate  for  the  nomination  of  his  party.  Henry  Clay, 
James  G.  Blaine,  and  William  I.  Bryan  were  chosen  f«»r  this 
reason.  Mr.  Roosevelt  did  not  always  choose  men  of  his 
own  party  as  members  of  his  Cabinet,  but  thos<'  whom  he 
thought  best  fitted  for  the  position,  a  |)oliey  to  be  highly  com- 
mended. If  at  any  time  a  member  of  the  <  'abinet  docs  not 
agree  with  the  President,  he  is  free  to  withdraw,  or  he  may 
be  asked  for  his  resignation. 

Work  of  the  Cabinet.  —  Though  the  President  is  not  boinid 
to  accept  the  advice  of  his  Cabinet,  he  usually  d«H's  so. 
The  story  is  told  of  President  Lincoln  that  on  one  «K-cn- 
sion  when  he  called  for  a  vote  from  his  Cabinet,  all   tiie 


326  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

seven  members  were  in  favor  of  the  proposition,  Mr. 
Lincoln  alone  opposing  it.  After  the  vote  was  taken  he  an- 
nounced, "  The  vote  is  seven  ayes  and  one  no.  The  noes 
have  it,"  which  meant  that  the  President's  vote  counted  for 
more  than  the  seven  ayes.  Meetings  of  the  Cabinet  are  or- 
dinarily held  twice  a  week,  and  the  President  confers  fre- 
quently with  individual  members,  particularly  during  such  a 
time  of  public  peril  as  the  war  with  Germany.  At  such 
a  time  there  must  be  close  agreement  between  the  Presi- 
dent and  his  advisers,  as  the  wheels  of  the  government 
must  run  as  smoothly  as  possible,  and  all  the  parts  of  the 
governmental  machinery  must  work  together.  The  salary  of 
a  Cabinet  officer  is  $12,000. 

Government  in  other  countries.  —  It  is  interesting  to  note 
the  diflferences  between  the  government  of  other  countries 
and  that  of  the  Ignited  States.  In  pyUgland  there  is  a  Parlia- 
ment composed  of  two  houses,  the  House  of  Lords  and  the 
House  of  Commons,  the  former  hereditary  and  the  latter 
elective.  This  body  corresponds  to  our  Congress.  At  the 
head  of  the  government  is  a  king  or  queen,  who  holds  office 
by  hereditary  right.  The  Prime  INIinister,  appointed  by  the 
king,  and  his  Cabinet,  are,  however,  the  real  rulers  of  the 
country.  One  of  the  English  kings  was  compelled  to  accept 
ministers  whom  he  did  not  like.  One  of  them  said  to  him, 
"  Your  ministers.  Sire,  are  but  the  instruments  of  your 
government."  The  king  smiled  and  answered,  "  In  this 
country  the  ministers  are  king." 

Since  England  is  really  ruled  by  the  ministers,  and  they 
must  represent  the  House  of  Commons,  a  new  Prime  Minister 
must  be  chosen  whenever  a  new  party  gets  control  of  the 
House  of  Commons.  In  such  a  case  the  king  requests  the 
leader  of  the  party  which  has  come  into  power  to  form  a 


THE    PRESIDENTS    ADVlsKifS  327 

Cabinet.  This  ('ahiiict  is  rcc()i,'iii/.c(|  hy  hiw  no  ninrf  than 
our  Cabinet  was  until  recent  years.  It  consists  of  ele\en 
or  more  members,  the  number  varying,'  with  the  iireferenee 
of  the  Prime  Minister  and  the  need  of  the  times.  It  is  not 
necessary  that  the  Cabinet  be  chosen  from  onr  j)arty  ;  indeed. 
during  the  World  War,  England  was  ruled  by  a  "  Coalition  " 
Cabinet,  that  is,  a  Cabinet  made  up  of  the  best  men  in  the 
country,  regardless  of  i)arty. 

If  at  any  time  the  Prime  Minister  does  not  have  the  con- 
fidence of  the  majority  of  the  nieinbers  of  the  IIons<-  of 
Commons,  he  may  resign,  or  call  for  a  new  election.  If 
the  election  gives  his  party  a  majority  of  members  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  he  remains  in  office.  If  his  party  (h»cs 
not  win  the  election,  the  Minister  and  his  Cabinet  resign, 
a  new  Minister  is  chosen  by  the  k'inLr,  and  a  new  (  abinet 
is  selected.  So  it  is  clear  that  the  Cabinet  regards  itself 
responsible  to  the  nation  at  large. 

The  duties  of  an  P^nglish  Cabinet  ditVer  xcry  iniieh  from 
those  of  the  American  Cabinet.  The  English  (abinet  has 
seats  in  the  House  of  Commons,  makes  up  the  annual  budget, 
shapes  legi.slation,  determines  the  j)olicy  of  tlu-  nation,  an*l 
administers  its  laws.  In  secret  session,  it  draw>  up  the 
more  important  measures  to  be  brought  befort-  the  Ilou.se 
of  Commons.  But  no  Cabinet  would  think  of  proposing  a 
law  which,  in  its  judgment,  was  not  favoretl  by  the  peo|>le. 

At  present  practically  all  countries  of  Europe  have  national 
Parliaments  modeled  after  that  of  England,  in  I-'rance  the 
Parliament  elects  the  President  of  the  He|)ublic.  who  in 
turn  appoints  a  Prime  Minister  and  a  Cabinet.  These 
ministers  direct  the  goverimient  as  long  as  they  retain  tin- 
confidence  of  a  majority  in  the  IIou.si'  of  l)«'puties.  (This 
body  corresponds  to  our  Ilou.se  of  Representatives,  and  to 


328  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

the  English  House  of  Commons.)     The  President  corresponds 
in  power  more  nearly  to  the  English  King  than  to  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States.     Even  more  than  in  England  the 
government  is  centered  in  the  Cabinet. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  of  all  the  governments  of 
Europe  is  that  of  Switzerland.  Here  is  found  the  best 
example  of  a  truly  self-governing  country.  Switzerland  is 
a  republic  consisting  of  twenty-two  cantons.  The  govern- 
ment of  the  cantons,  modeled  after  that  of  the  United  States, 
is  composed  of  two  houses,  one  the  National  Council,  elected 
by  popular  vote,  the  other  the  Council  of  States  with  two 
delegates  from  each  canton.  These  two  houses  in  joint 
session  choose  a  committee  of  seven  to  act  as  an  executive. 
The  President  is  merely  chairman  of  this  committee.  Dur- 
ing his  term  of  one  year  he  has  no  more  authority  than  his 
fellow  members.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  the  members 
of  the  cantons  meet  together  as  the  people  in  New  England 
meet  in  their  town  meetings,  to  make  their  laws,  elect  officers, 
and  levy  taxes.  The  vote  is  taken  by  a  show  of  uplifted 
hands.  In  others  of  the  cantons  the  initiative  and  the 
referendum  are  used,  not  only  for  local  laws,  but  also  for 
federal  laws  and  for  Constitutional  amendments. 

Questions  for  Ina'estigation 

1.  What  power  was  given  the  Cabinet  members  under  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Confederate  States?  Do  you  consider  this  a  wise  plan? 
Why? 

2.  Givetlie  names  of  the  members  of  the  President's  Cabinet.  What 
do  you  notice  concerning  the  states  from  wliich  they  come?  What 
conclusion  do  you  draw  from  this? 

3.  What  are  some  of  the  differences  betw^een  the  English  and  the 
American  Cabinet  ? 

4.  Why  is  a  President  justified  in  disregarding  the  advice  of  his 
Cabinet  as  President  Lincoln  did  ? 


THE    PRESIDP]XT'S   AI)VISK1{S  .T20 

5.  Make  a  romparison  of  tin-  duties  of  the  Scrn'tary  of  State  of 
the  United  States  and  those  of  tlie  Secretary  (.f  State  of  your  state, 
noting  (a)  simihirities,  (/;)  difTerenees. 

6.  Mention  some  of  our  most  noted  Seen-taries  of  State.  Kor  what 
are  they  noted?  Mention  some  of  our  noted  aml)assadors  to  foreijjii 
countries. 

7.  To  wliich  ot  the  (l(>]);n-tnients  of  government  would  you  a|)j)ly 
for  a  passport?  To  enter  West  Point  ?  To  ol)tain  free  se«tls?  To  obtain 
information  as  to  educational  matters?  To  hecome  n  po.stnuin?  To 
obtain  government  hind  ? 

8.  Make  a  Hst  of  matters  in  which  the  Department  of  AgricuUurc 
is  of  great  help  to  the  farmer.     Make  a  report  to  the  chiss. 

9.  Wliy  is  it  necessary  for  tlie  govermnent  to  luaintain  fi-h  luitch- 
eries?     What  is  done  in  these  hatcheries?     Where  are  tliey  Iocate<l  ? 

10.  How  could  our  foreign  service  be  made  more  effective? 

11.  W'rite  a  coni])osition  on  the  subject:  "The  st>rvices  of  the 
Weather  Hureau." 

12.  Make  an  outline  of  the  President's  Cabinet  as  follows : 

Office  Name  of  Official  Dltiejj 


CHAPTER   XXII 
POLITICAL  PARTIES  AND  ELECTIONS 

The  officials  chosen  to  direct  our  local  community,  as 
well  as  those  who  govern  the  state  and  the  nation,  are  usually 
chosen  from  one  or  another  of  our  political  parties.  A  politi- 
cal party  is  a  group  of  people  who  have  the  same  opinion  as 
to  the  carrying  on  of  the  affairs  of  the  government  and  the 
policies  it  should  follow.  It  may  be  a  group  from  every 
state  in  the  Union,  for  example  the  Republican  or  the  Demo- 
cratic parties,  or  it  may  be  a  group  joined  together  over 
some  local  issue,  or  whose  ideas  have  not  spread  over  the 
entire  country. 

Early  parties.  —  When  the  Constitution  was  formed,  no 
provision  was  made  for  a  government  by  party,  yet  it  works 
as  well  as  if  it  had  been  made  with  that  purpose  in  view.  Our 
government  has  always  been  a  government  of  parties.  In- 
deed, parties  were  formed  almost  before  the  constitutional 
convention  had  adjourned.  The  thirteen  states  were 
3plit  over  the  question  of  adopting  the  Constitution  as  pre- 
sented to  the  people.  The  two  parties  which  were  formed 
were  the  Federalist  and  the  Anti-Federalist  parties.  After 
the  Constitution  was  adopted,  there  was  no  question  upon 
which  to  divide,  until  another  sharp  division  arose  over  the 
powers  of  the  federal  go\-ernment  and  the  interpretation 
of  the  Constitution.  The  parties  formed  at  this  time  were  the 
Federalist  and  the  Democratic-Republican,  the  latter  to  be 

330 


POUTICAL    PARTIES   AXD    KLK("TF(»\S  :331 


known  in  later  yours  as  the  1  )cin(>(Tat ic  party.  'I'lirsr  two 
divisions  of  the  people  lasted  nntil  the  elose  (»f  the  war  of 
1812,  and  when  that  ])eri()d  was  (  nded,  only  the  1  )tni<Kratic 
party  was  left. 

For  some  years  the  Deniocratie  party  rcinaimd  ainnf,  an<l 
the  period  has  sometimes  reeeixed  the  name  i>l'  "  'i'lu-  l-!ra  of 


>01. 

niC«L     OVSTtKKOUSf 
Htrclilitllt  fcS..ISh(lll 

^Js 


A  Political  Cartoon 

This   shows    Mr.    Lincoln    "eating  up"    his   two   political   ..pix.n.iii.-.    Mr. 
Breckenridge  and  Mr.  Uougla.s. 

Good  Feeling."  This,  however,  is  not  a  trnr  title,  as  it  was 
really  a  period  of  very  hitter  jxilitieal  hatreds.  Hi\alry 
in  the  party  ran  hiij;h,  a  rivalry  which  finally  erystalli/«i| 
about  two  of  the  party  leaders.  Henry  (lay  and  .\ndrew 
Jackson.  Jackson's  followers  kept  the  old  name  of  demo- 
crats, and  those  of  Cliiy  took  the  name  of  \Mni:>^. 

From    1840  to    1800    slavery   was  the   m(»st    prominent 


332  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

question  before  the  country  and  a  division  was  not  long 
in  coming  to  the  two  great  parties.  They  divided  into  those 
in  favor  of  the  extension  of  slavery  and  those  opposed 
to  it.  The  Whig  party  went  out  of  existence,  "choked 
to  death  by  trying  to  swallow  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law," 
it  was  said.  All  those  who  were  opposed  to  slavery  or  its  ex- 
tension joined  together  into  the  Republican  party,  and  in 
the  election  of  1860,  elected  Abraham  Lincoln  as  President. 
The  Democratic  party  was  divided  on  the  slavery  question, 
a  division  which  weakened  the  party  so  greatly  that  not  until 
1884  was  another  Democratic  President  elected. 

Present  party  differences.  —  At  the  present  time  the  dif- 
ferences between  the  two  chief  parties  are  not  very  great. 
This  is  especially  true  in  time  of  danger  to  the  country. 
Party  lines  are  forgotten,  and  all  join  in  facing  the  common 
foe.  There  may  be  differences  of  opinion  as  to  what  is  best 
to  be  done,  and  just  what  is  the  best  method  of  going  about 
the  business  in  hand.  A  "  little  group  of  willful  men  " 
may  obstruct  the  working  of  the  government  for  a  time,  but 
not  for  long,  for  with  the  majority  of  party  men  it  is  the 
country  first  and  party  afterward.  The  greatest  difference 
between  the  two  parties  is  that  one  is  in  power  and  the  other 
is  out  of  power.  The  "  outs  "  are  trying  to  get  in  and  the 
"  ins  "  are  trying  to  stay  in.  It  is  coming  to  be  more  and 
more  an  acknowledged  fact  that  the  people  are  looking,  not 
so  much  at  the  party  principles,  as  at  the  men  to  be  voted 
for.  This  is  particularly-  true  of  state  and  local  governments. 
The  man  who  is  best  fitted  to  perform  the  duties  of  the 
office  for  which  he  is  nominated,  has  the  best  chance  of  being 
elected. 

Elections.  —  How  the  two  great  parties  go  about  nomi- 
nating candidates  for  the  presidency  has  been  told  in  the 


POLITICAL   PARTIES   AND    KLKf'TlOXS  :VM\ 

chapter  on  the  President.  Let  us  examine  this  n.rtli.MJ  :i 
little  more  closely  and  find  out  liow  it  is  that  the  peopir  cast 
their  ballots  for  one  or  the  other  party  candidates.  Some- 
time before  the  term  of  ofKce  of  the  dillerent  elective  office- 
holders expires,  the  parties  become  acti\c  iu  phuiu::  in 
nomination  the  men  to  succeed  them.  The  noniiiiiitiun  is 
accomplished  in  different  ways  in  dilfereiit  states. 

Nominating  conventions.  —  In  some  states  it  is  po.ssible 
for  any  citizen  to  announce  himself  as  a  candidate  for  office, 
and  his  name  is  then  printed  on  the  ballot.  In  others  the 
voters  of  the  party  meet  and  choose  their  candidates  for 
local  offices,  and  their  delegates  to  the  iioininatinu  c(.iivcn- 
tions  of  the  party.  The  conventions,  for  example  the  nomi- 
nating conventions  held  to  i)lace  the  candidates  for  the  presi- 
dency before  the  country,  are  composed  of  men  elected  bv 
the  parties  from  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  delegates 
from  each  party  meet  at  some  chosen  i)lace,  and  brilliant 
speakers,  chosen  by  the  party  leaders,  place  in  nomination 
the  men  who  wish  to  run  for  office.  The  conxcutiou  \-otes 
upon  the  names  thus  presented,  and  the  ones  elected  by  the 
convention  are  the  chosen  candidates  of  the  part\-. 

Other  methods.  —  In  many  states  the  nominating  con- 
vention has  been  done  away  with.  In  some  of  the  states  the 
voters  of  the  party  meet  on  "  primary  "  da\  and  cast  their 
ballots  for  their  party  candidates  in  a  maimer  similar  to 
that  in  which  they  vote  at  a  general  election.  Those  who 
receive  a  plurality  of  the  \()tes  cast,  recei\e  the  nomination. 
In  other  states  the  methotl  is  by  petition.  .V  candidate 
maj^  be  nominated  for  office  by  filing  with  the  proper  ofiieiais 
a  petition  signed  by  a  certain  number  of  voters.  Of  all  these 
methods  of  placing  a  candidate  in  nomination,  the  two  latter 
show  the  tendency  of  the  people  to  take  the  election  of  their 


334 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


officials  into  their  own  hands,  and  out  of  the  hands  of  the 
professional  politicians  who  for  so  many  years  dictated  the 
nominations. 

Qualifications  for  a  voter.  —  Before  a  person  can  vote  on 
election  day  for  any  of  the  candidates  placed  in  nomination, 


iJanoon  pUotograpnea  oy  W.  A.  uuim 

Political  Cartoon 

This  cartoon  was  published  at  the  time  of  the  election  of  Mr.  Lincoln 
as  President.  It  emphasizes  the  height  of  the  two  men  and  their  personal 
appearance.  Mr.  Lincoln  carries  over  his  shoulder  a  maul  to  split  rails. 
The  negro  tells  Mr.  Douglas  that  he  must  make  some  decision  on  the  slavery 
question. 


he  must  have  certain  qualifications.  The  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  makes  a  general  statement  that  the  right 
of  citizens  to  vote  shall  not  be  abridged  on  account  of  race, 
color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude.  As  long  as  this 
condition  is  obeyed,  the  state  is  free  to  prescribe  what  other 
provisions  it  thinks  best.     In  all  states  a  person  must  be 


POLITICAL   TWRTIES   AXD    EF.EOTIONS  335 

twenty-one  years  old  in  order  to  vote,  ;ind  in  ail  rxcrpt 
Arkansas,  registration  is  a  necessary  (|ualifieati<.ii.  jiy  an 
amendment  to  the  Constitution,  hotli  men  an<l  womicm  have 
the  privilege  of  voting.  In  all  states  certain  classes  of  jhmh 
ple  are  forbidden  to  xote  Innatio.  i)anper>,  and  con- 
victed criminals. 

Registration.  —  By  registration  is  meant  that  all  who  \vi>h 
to  vote  must  appear  at  a  certain  time  designated  hy  law  at 
certain  places  selected  by  the  local  government;  there  they 
must  record  their  name,  age,  address,  and  other  facts  which 
pertain  to  their  qualifications  as  voters.  This  is  <loiie 
that  fraudulent  voting  may  be  stopped. 

Voting.  —  Let  us  go  to  the  polls  in  New  "\'ork  J^tate  and 
watch  the  casting  of  the  ballots.  When  election  day  comes 
places  are  provided  by  the  local  officials  where  the  ballots 
may  be  cast.  This  room  where  the  balloting  is  done  is 
divided  into  several  little  rooms,  or  "  booths  "  as  they  are 
called,  so  that  the  voting  may  be  in  secret.  Necessary 
officials  are  at  hand,  taken  in  e<|nal  ninni)iT>  from  the  lead- 
ing political  j)arties,  to  .see  that  the  j)urity  (tf  the  ballot  is 
securely  guarded.  A  voter  enters  the  room,  the  registration 
book  is  inspected,  and  he  signs  his  name.  This  is  compared 
with  the  signature  formerly  written  on  regi.stration  (hiy,  and 
then  he  is  given  a  ballot.  lie  steps  to  the  booth  and  closes 
the  door.  With  the  pencil  which  he  finds  there  he  makes 
a  mark  (X)  on  his  ballot  before  the  nanu-^  of  the  ])ersonsfor 
whom  he  wishes  to  vote.  lie  folds  the  ballt>t  aixl  c(»ming 
from  the  booth  gives  it  to  the  projjcr  official.  This  official 
tears  from  the  ballot  a  "  .stub  "  which  is  attached  and  num- 
bered to  correspond  with  the  number  on  tln'  ballot.  The 
stub  is  dro])ped  into  the  stuf)  l)ox,  and  the  ballot  is  |)lacnl  in 
the  ballot  box.     Since  the  numbers  of  the  stubs  anti  tlie 


336 


COMMUNITY   CIVICS 


ballots  must  agree  at  the  final  counting,  it  renders  almost 
impossible  the  "  stuffing  "  of  the  ballot  box.  Sometimes 
a  voting  machine  is  used  instead  of  printed  ballots.  Though 
their  initial  expense  is  great,  they  give  great  secrecy  to  the 

ballot,  and  make  it  pos- 
sible to  get  an  accurate 
j    count  of  the  votes  very 
quickly. 

Some  years  ago  all 
forms  of  corruption  were 
possible  at  election  time. 
Bribery  was  common,  as 
the  party  workers  could 
give  a  man  money  for 
his  vote,  and  take  him 
to  the  polls  and  watch 
him  cast  his  ballot.  To- 
day in  most  states  party 
workers  are  not  allowed 
w'ithin  a  certain  distance 

Courtesy  oj  Empire  Voting  Machine  Company      OI    the    pOils,     a     dlStaUCC 
Voter  Entering  the  Voting  Booth        which  is  plainly  marked. 

No  one  but  the  proper 

officials  and  the  police, 

if  necessary,  are  allowed 

in  the  room   where  the 

votes  are  cast,  and  the  ballot  is  a  secret  one  (except  in 

Georgia   and   South   Carolina)    patterned    after    one   used 

in  Australia. 

The  short  ballot.  —  Evils  have  grown  up  even  with  this 
system  of  voting.  Candidates  have  become  so  numerous 
that  it  is  impossible  for  the  voter  really  to  know  for  whom  he 


When  he  pulls  the  handle  the  curtain 
closes  and  unlocks  the  machine.  After 
voting,  he  reverses  the  handle  which  locks 
the  machine,  registers  the  vote,  and  opens 
the  curtain. 


POLITKWL    I'AirriKS    AXI)    KIJU  "TloNS 


X\7 


is  voting'.  In  a  recent  election  tlie  \(»ter\vas  i^iven  a  hallot 
eight  feet  long,  iijjon  wliicli  were  nioie  than  two  hiin.lrr.l 
names.  A  movement,  known  a^  the  Short  IJallot  movement, 
is  now  under  way  in  dili'erent  i)arts  of  the  eonntry  to  >horten 
these  ballots  by  electing  fewer  olHeialsand  giving  tho>e  who 
are  elected  greater  ai)i)()inting  power.     This  is  really  notiiing 


Courtfsy  of  Umpire  I  i4ny;  Mxliiite  ('OTnpdiiy 
VOTIXG    A    Sl'LIT    TiCKKT    I'V     \    Vi.TIS.i    Ma.  IIIVK 


new,  as  it  is  the  way  in  which  we  elect  (»iir  natit»nal  oHieers. 
We  choose  a  President  and  give  him  great  powers  of  app«>int- 
ment  and  removal,  and  hold  him  responsible  for  the  sikxvss 
or  failure  of  his  administration.  It  is  thought  that  such  u 
method  of  voting  will  enable  the  voter  to  cast  his  l>allot  mon* 
intelligently,  and  hold  those  in  office  to  more  strict  atx-ount. 


338  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

Duties  of  a  voter.  —  Voting  is  a  privilege,  and  when  con- 
ferred becomes  a  duty.  The  duties  of  a  voter  have  been 
summed  up  as  follows  : 

"  He  should 

(1)  vote  whenever  it  is  his  privilege ; 

(2)  try  to  understand  the  questions  upon  which  he  votes ; 

(3)  learn  something  about  the  character  and  qualifications 
of  the  persons  for  whom  he  votes ; 

(4)  vote  only  for  honest  candidates; 

(5)  support  only  honest  measures  ; 

(6)  give  no  bribe,  indirect  or  direct,  nor  receive  one ; 

(7)  place  country  above  party  ; 

(8)  recognize  the  result  of  the  election  as  the  will  of  the 
people,  and  therefore  as  law ; 

(9)  continue  to  vote  for  a  righteous  although  a  defeated 
cause  as  long  as  there  is  a  reasonable  hope  of  victory." 

Majority  rule.  —  If  the  captain  of  the  ball  team  to  which 
you  belong  is  to  be  elected  or  if  a  presiding  officer  of  the 
society  of  which  you  are  a  member  is  to  be  chosen,  when  the 
election  is  held  and  the  votes  are  counted,  the  one  who  re- 
ceives the  most  votes  is  the  one  elected.  In  other  words,  you 
are  governed  by  a  majority.  It  may  be  that  the  one  for 
whom  you  voted  was  not  the  one  elected,  yet  if  you  are 
a  good  member  of  the  team  or  a  loyal  member  of  the 
society,  you  abide  by  the  results  of  the  election.  In  a  simi- 
lar manner  you  will  vote  for  the  officials  to  preside  over 
your  governmental  affairs,  for  ours  is  a  government  by  the 
majority. 

Mr.  Bryce  says,  "  As  self-government  is  based  on  the  idea 
that  each  man  is  more  likely  to  be  right  than  to  be  wrong, 
and  that  one  man's  opinion  must  be  treated  as  equally  good 
with  another's,  there  is  a  presumption  that  when  twenty 


POLITICAL    PARTIKS    AND    KI^KCTIO.VS  :?39 

thousand  vote  one  way  and  twenty-one  tlionsand  another, 
the  view  of  the  greater  nnnilxT  is  the  hetter  \  lew." 

Seldom  in  our  history  lias  the  majority  used  its  power 
t^Tannically.  Knowing  that  tliey  are  responsihle  to  all  the 
people,  those  who  ha\i-  heen  elected  take  care  to  perform 
their  duties  properly.  They  know  that  if  they  do  not,  the 
majority  by  which  they  were  elected  will  become  the  minority, 
and  they  will  be  forced  from  office. 

The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  and  the  state  con- 
stitutions have  so  limited  the  powers  of  our  law-making 
bodies  that  abuse  of  power  by  the  majority  has  been  rendered 
difficult.  Freedom  of  speech  and  freedom  of  religion  are 
granted,  the  power  of  taxation  is  limited,  and  amendments 
may  be  made  to  the  fundamental  laws  of  the  land.  The 
minority  always  has  at  hand  the  weapon  of  public  opinion, 
which  often  exerts  so  great  an  influence  tliat  a  >niall  niinorit\- 
becomes  a  large  majorit\-. 


Questions  for  Invksticatiov 

1.  Name    the    i)()litical    parties    prominent    at    the    last    rle<fiiin. 
What  were  some  of  the  (piestions  at  issue  at  tliat  time? 

2.  Does  your  eommimity  vote  hy  use  of  the  j)rinte<I  l)nll<it  or  l>y  tlie 
voting  machine?     Wliieli  do  you  consider  tiie  hetter  way?     Wliy? 

3.  By  what  metliod  are  candidates  nominated  in  your  state? 

4.  Wliat  are  tlic  necessary  ([uaiifieations  of  a  voter  in  your  state? 
How  do  these  ((uaiifieations  differ  from  tiiose  of  other  states? 

5.  Locate  the  iK)lling  place  nearest  your  home. 

6.  What  are  the  laws  of  your  state  eoneerninf;  lirilx^ry  ?     Is  the  liril>e 
taker  any  better  citizen  than  the  hrihe  pver? 

7.  As  a  good  citizen,  what  can  you  do  to  stop  KrilH-ry  ? 

8.  When  are  elections  field  in  your  hx-al  community?     \u  the  siate? 
Are  tliey  at  a  different  time  from  the  gem-ral  eleetion  ?     Why  ? 

9.  Ask  your  teacher  to  hold  an  election  in  your  clu,s,sr(K)m,  eonducted 
in  a  manner  similar  to  your  local  elections. 


340  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

10.  WTiat  objections  are  there  to  contributions  from  corporations  to 
an  election  fund  ? 

11.  What  are  some  of  the  proper  party  expenses  at  election  time? 

12.  Who  is  the  committeeman  f)f  each  party  of  your  ward  or  town ? 
What  are  his  duties?  Who  are  the  leaders  of  the  parties  in  your  com- 
munity? 


niAPTFR    XXI  1[ 
HOW  GOVERNMENT   PAYS  ITS  EXPENSES 

It  is  clear  from  what  has  been  said  previously  that  {;ov- 
ernment  needs  a  jjreat  deal  of  money  to  pay  the  expenses 
of  its  various  aetivities.  The  laws  of  the  state  and  of  the 
nation  specify  that  there  nnist  Ik-  a  certain  uiiiforMiity  in 
the  assessment  of  taxes,  and  that  nobody  may  be  exempt 
from  the  payment  of  taxes.  (Charitable  ;ind  religions 
institutions  are  exempt.)  This  is  no  more  than  fair,  for 
])eople  should  pay  for  the  help  they  reeei\'e  from  their  ^'ov- 
ermnent.  Thus  it  is  that  e\ery  one  pays  taxes,  in  oni"  w;iy 
or  another,  either  directly  itr  indireetlx'.  The  jx-rson  who 
rents  a  house  pays  a  tax  indirectly,  for  i)art  of  the  rent  lu- 
pays  to  the  owner  must  bi'  ])aid  for  taxe>.  The  law  alM» 
provides  that  the  debts  of  a  coinimmity  may  not  exceed 
a  certain  proportion  of  its  taxable  property,  and  that 
the  taxes  levied  on  imjjorts  >h;dl  be  tlie  same  in  all  parts 
of  the  country. 

In  general  a  tax  sht)ulil  l)e  ju-^t,  that  is.  so  levied  that  it  is 
within  the  ability  of  the  citizens  to  pay  it.  and  so  apixtrtioned 
that  those  most  able  to  pay  bear  their  proportionati-  share. 

Each  form  of  government,  local,  state,  or  national,  luus 
its  own  method  of  obtainiiii:  the  mon«'y  for  its  expense's. 
Let  us  see  how  the  local  conununity  gets  its  money. 

Local  taxation.  ^  on  have  read  in  a  previous  chapter 
that  one  of  the  ofiicials  of  the  town  or  county  is  known  lus  an 

341 


342  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

assessor  or  appraiser  (see  Chapter  XVI).  Each  community 
usually  has  three  such  officials.  Their  business  is  to  go  about 
the  community  and  place  a  value  on  the  different  pieces  of 
property.  This  is  to  determine  the  share  that  each  prop- 
erty owner  should  pay  toward  the  support  of  tlie  local 
community,  the  county,  and  the  state.  When  the 
amount  of  the  tax  to  be  raised  is  known,  this  is  divided  by 
the  total  amount  of  taxable  property  as  found  by  the 
assessors,  in  order  to  find  the  rate  for  the  amount  of  tax  for 
each  person.  The  assessed  value  of  each  piece  of  property, 
multiplied  by  the  rate,  gives  the  amount  of  tax  for  each 
property  holder.  The  money  so  raised  is  then  di\ided 
into  its  proper  proportion  for  the  local  community,  the 
county,  and  the  state. 

After  the  amount  of  assessment  for  crx-h  person  is  made  up, 
a  day  is  set  apart,  sometimes  known  as  "  grievance  "  day, 
at  which  time  a  property  owner  may  appear  before  the 
board  of  assessors  and  protest  his  assessment  if  he  considers 
it  unfair.  If  he  can  prove  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  board 
that  it  is  too  much,  the  assessment  is  usually  lowered. 

Each  community  has  an  official,  either  elected  by  the 
people  of  the  community,  or  appointed  by  some  important 
board  or  official,  to  collect  the  taxes,  and  turn  them  over 
to  the  proper  official.  The  money  is  then  spent  according 
to  the  needs  of  the  community. 

In  addition  to  taxes,  the  most  important  source  of  income 
of  a  community,  money  is  also  obtained  from  fines  imposed 
upon  those  who  break  the  law ;  for  example,  fines  are  im- 
posed upon  those  who  speed  their  automobiles,  or  break  the 
local  traffic  regulations.  Fines  are  sometimes  imposed  upon 
those  who  are  arrested  and  brought  before  the  local  judges 
for  disorderly  conduct.     Such  fines  are  turned  into  the  treas- 


HOW    GOVERNMENT    PAYS    ITS    KXI'KNSKS       .343 

iiry  of  tlu'  coiiiinunitN .  ( 'oniiimiiitics  jils<)  n-ccivr  ctrtaiii 
monies  from  the  state,  f(>r  ('x;uii|)lc.  inoiity  U,r  )ilii<;iti<.ii;il 
purposes.  Small  amounts  are  nrcivcd  for  licenx's.  for  the 
sale  of  franchises,  and  in  some  states  ii  poll  t;ix  is  |)aitl.  'I'he 
latter  is  a  tax  laid  \\\)(>\\  the  head  i  |)o|| )  of  each  \ otrr.  ami  in  a 
few  commonwealths,  no  one  nia>  \(>ic  until  hi^  |>oll  tax  is 
paid.  Three  fourths  of  thr  rcMuuc  for  all  state  and  l<K.'al 
taxes,  however,  comes  from  the  tax  laid  on  property,  a 
tax  used  in  all  but  a  few  states. 

Local  eommimities  are  usually  heavily  in  i\r])U  Money 
is  required  to  improve  the  streets,  t(»  erect  puMie  huiMinjjs, 
to  construct  sewers,  and  to  supi)ort  many  oilier  aeti\itics 
of  the  community.  Too  often  the  inoiu-y  of  the  eoiiimimity 
is  wasted  by  incompetent  or  dishonest  official^.  Th  •  only 
way  to  remedy  this  is  to  elect  oflieials  who  an-  honest 
and  capable  and  who  will  <;ive  the  same  tlioiii,dit  and  care  to 
comnnniity  business  that  they  would  .i:i\ <•  to  their  own. 

State  finance. — The  Constitution  of  the  Iriited  States 
forbids  the  states  to  tax  ^'oo(l>  eiiterim:  or  lea\  ini:  tln'ir 
boundaries,  they  may  not  le\  y  a  tax  on  tin*  capacity  of  a 
ship  to  carry  goods,  nor  may  th.ey  tax  the  buildinu's  or  the 
property  or  any  agency  of  the  national  government,  .\side 
from  these  prohibitions,  ami  oth.ers  contained  in  the  dif- 
ferent state  constitutions,  the  state  is  at  liberty  to  tax  any- 
thing it  chooses.  This  gives  a  commonwealth  large  powers 
and  makes  it  easier  for  a  state  to  rai-e  the  mone>  to  pay 
its  debts  than  it  is  for  a  local  eonnnnnity.  .\s  in  a  local 
commimity  the  authority  to  sju-nd  mt»ney  conn-s  from  it.s 
law-making  b(xly,  so  the  jx.wcr  of  the  state  to  s|)en<l  cimies 
from  the  legislature.  The  authority  of  the  law-making  body 
comes  from  the  people  themselves. 

The  largest  source  of  inc(»me  for  most  of  the  states  is  the 


344  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

property  tax  levied  by  the  local  community,  which  is  divided 
between  state,  county,  and  local  community.  Probably 
three  fourths  of  the  revenue  comes  from  this  source.  Some 
property  is  free  from  tax,  churches  and  schools  for  example, 
and  in  some  states  household  furniture  is  free,  up  to  a  certain 
value. 

Another  source  of  income  to  the  state  is  the  tax  on  auto- 
mobiles. A  license  number  on  an  automobile  means  that 
a  tax  has  been  paid  to  the  state  and  permission  granted  to 
the  owner  of  the  car  to  operate  it. 

Many  states  tax  the  transfer  of  property  from  one  person 
to  another  by  will,  an  inheritance  tax.  Others  tax  incomes 
above  a  certain  amount,  others  the  transfer  of  stocks  and 
bonds  from  one  person  to  another.  It  is  expected  that  the 
income  tax,  now  permitted  by  the  federal  Constitution,  will 
soon  become  one  of  the  largest  sources  of  revenue.  Some 
levy  a  tax  on  corporations,  and  some  on  mortgages. 

With  the  money  that  it  raises  by  taxation  the  state  carries 
on  its  many  activities.  It  takes  care  of  its  dependent  and 
needy,  builds  its  roads,  erects  its  public  buildings,  pays  its 
officials,  protects  the  lives  and  health  of  its  citizens,  and  in 
some  states  pro\'ides  insurance  for  those  who  work  or  are 
injured.  The  same  evils  are  apparent  in  the  spending  of 
state  money  that  are  found  in  the  spending  of  the  funds  of 
the  community.  The  remedy  is  the  same,  honest  and  capable 
officials.     The  voting  citizen  has  this  matter  in  his  own  hands. 

National  taxation.  —  When  the  national  government  taxes 
us  it  does  it  in  such  a  manner  that  we  do  not  realize  that  we 
are  paying  money  for  the  support  of  the  government.  We 
pay  direct  taxes  to  the  community  and  the  state.  To  the 
national  government  the  average  citizen  pays  indirect  taxes. 
These  taxes  are  levied  in  several  different  ways.     One  of  the 


HOW    GOVERNMENT    I'AVS    ITS    KXPENSKS      .'Mo 

most  important  sources  of  tlif  iVdi  nil  jrovcniiiiciit's  iiicduu- 
is  from  tlie  tax  levied  on  goods  entering  the  country.  This 
tax  we  know  as  a  tariff.  If  you  renieniher  your  lessons  in 
history,  you  will  remember  that  sucli  a  tax  was  le\icd  jit 
the  first  meeting  of  Congress  in  I7S0.  The  (pif^tion  of 
whether  a  large  or  a  small  tarill"  should  i)e  Ic\  led  is  one  whieli 
has  divided  our  country  into  two  i)arties.  The  Uei)ubiican 
party  has  usually  stood  for  a  high  turitl',  whieh  it  holds  the 
country  needs  for  its  revenues  and  to  i)roteet  its  industries. 
The  Democrats  have  stood  for  a  lower  tarill",  one  whieh 
should  bring  in  revenue,  and  not  be  ;i  proteetixi-  tarilf. 
Several  presidential  elections  have  been  fought  over  this 
question. 

The  advantage  of  such  a  tax  as  the  tarill',  or  ;iny  of  tiie 
federal  taxes,  is  that  they  are  not  felt  by  the  one  who  finally 
pays  the  tax.  The  one  who  brings  the  goods  into  the  country 
adds  the  amount  of  the  tax  to  the  cost  of  the  g(M)(ls  and  the 
one  who  finally  purchases  them  is  the  one  who  really  i)ays  the 
tax. 

Effort  to  evade  the  tariff  is  called  smuggling.  SnniggMng 
is  punishable  by  a  heavy  fine,  or  by  imprisonment,  or  by 
both.  The  federal  government  has  a  large  force  of  officials 
at  each  port  of  entry  on  the  borders  (»f  the  country  to  see 
that  goods  are  not  brought  into  the  country  without  the 
payment  of  duty. 

Another  great  source  of  revenue  for  i»aynient  of  go\»Tn- 
ment  expenses  is  the  excise  tax.  This  is  a  tax  levied  on  the 
consumption,  sale,  or  manufacture  of  gcMhls  within  the 
country.  It  is  sometimes  called  an  internal  revenue  tax. 
It  has  usually  been  levied  on  the  manufacture  of  licjuors.  to- 
bacco, and  oleomargarine.  It  is  collected  by  means  of  stamps 
which  must  be  purchased  by  the  manufacturers  and  placed 


346  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

on  each  package  of  goods  to  be  taxed.  The  stamp  on  a 
package  of  cigarettes  or  of  smoking  tobacco  is  a  familiar 
example.  With  the  passage  of  the  amendment  to  the  Con- 
stitution prohibiting  the  manufacture  or  sale  of  liquor,  one 
of  the  greatest  sources  of  revenue  has  been  taken  away, 
and  some  other  method  of  raising  this  amount  must  be 
found  by  the  government. 

The  third  source  of  revenue  of  the  national  government 
is  the  income  tax.  This  tax  was  made  possible  by  the  pas- 
sage of  the  sixteenth  amendment  to  the  Constitution.  All 
persons  who  have  an  income  over  a  certain  amount  must 
pay  a  tax  to  the  government.  A  large  amount  of  wealth 
throughout  the  country  is  in  the  form  of  stocks  and  bonds, 
and  so  is  easily  concealed  and  not  reached  by  a  general  state 
property  tax.  This  is  not  fair,  as  each  person  should  con- 
tribute to  the  support  of  the  government  according  to  his 
ability.  The  income  tax  overcomes  this  difficulty,  and  the 
rich  whose  money  is  invested  in  the  kinds  of  property  that 
are  easily  concealed,  now  pay  their  just  share  in  support  of 
the  government.  Congress  has  also  passed  a  law  that 
levies  a  tax  on  corporations. 

The  national  government  receives  an  income  from  the 
receipts  of  the  post  office,  and  also  from  the  sale  of  public 
lands.  The  receipts  from  the  post  office  are  very  large, 
but  no  one  has  yet  made  that  department  of  our  government 
self-supporting.  To  help  meet  the  expenses  of  the  war 
with  Germany,  a  "  luxury  "  tax  was  levied,  that  is,  taxes 
were  placed  on  clothing  and  other  articles  above  a  certain 
value.  This  proved,  however,  a  very  unsatisfactorj'  method 
of  taxation. 

Bonds.  —  In  order  to  meet  unexpected  or  extraordinary 
expenses,  local,  state,  and  national  governments  are  per- 


HOW   GOVERNMENT    I'AVs    ITS    KXI'ENSKS      'M7 

mittcd  to  borrow  money  hy  issiiini,^  Ixmds.  A  huml  i-  >oiiic- 
thini:  like  ;i  promissory  note  '/\\vi\  hy  ii  |)ri\;itc  iii<livi(lu;il. 
The  boiul  states  the  jimomit  owed  l.>y  the  governineiit,  the 
amount  of  interest  it  jkivs,  and  the  (hite  of  payment.  Sinee 
the  one  who  buys  the  bond  is  sure  of  his  iiucstinent,  these 
securities  are  eagerly  souj,dit  l)\'  those  who  wi-h  to  invest 
their  money  safely,  and  yet  receixc  a  fair  return.  The 
Liberty  bonds  issued  by  the  iroverninent  (hirinj:  the  war 
against  Germany  are  pxxl  examples  of  this  source  of  ine«tme. 
The  state  and  local  bonds  usually  bear  a  hij,dier  rati*  of 
interest  than  those  of  the  national  ^'overnment. 
One  of  our  leading  i)olitical  economists  says: 
"The  ever-growinu^  demands  that  the  I'ederal  (In\ern- 
ment  depart  from  its  former  narrow  Held  (of  taxation]  are 
now  so  insistent  and  .strong,  that  the  >tatesmnst  apparently 
soon  <ii\e  U])  their  exclnsixt'  eontrtil  n\er  tin-  taxation  *>{  real 
estate  and  i)ersonalty  [per.sonal  pr<»perty].  The  American 
people  are  no  lontjer  interested  .solely  in  findinj;  the  «'asiest 
means  of  securini;  the  most  reveinie  for  tin- j:o\-ernment  ;  they 
are  now  deNotinu  more  atteniinn  to  thos*-  taxes  which  will 
shift  the  wei<,dit  of  ,<,M)\-ernment  ex|)ense  to  the  wealth  of  the 
country.  The  one  thou;,dit  which  rnns  through  the  inherit- 
ance tax,  the  income  tax.  and  all  tlie  newer  form>  of  le\y, 
is  that  the  chief  burden  shonid  lie  lifted  from  the  iMM)rer 
classes  and  made  to  rest  upon  tlio>e  of  more  wealth." 

QUE-STIONS   FOR   IxTtUSTlGATUiN 

1.  What  were  the  expenses  of  the  pivenuiH-iit  <Iiiriii>;  the  wnr? 

2.  In  addition  to  tlie  ways  mentioiu-d  in  »h«'  t.xt.  give  s<.ine  wny.i  in 
which  your  parents  i)ay  an  indirect  tax. 

3.  How  is  the  vahiation  of  property  made  in  your  r<iiniminity? 
How  many  assessors  are  there  ?  I  low  are  t  hey  rhoscn  ?  What  is  their 
term  of  office  ? 


348  COMMUNITY  CIVICS 

4.  The  total  valuation  of  the  property  of  a  community  is  $50,000,000. 
The  expenses  of  the  community  are  $500,000.  What  tax  does  a  property 
owner  of  the  community  pay  whose  property  is  assessed  for  S5000? 
for  $28,000? 

5.  What  is  a  board  of  equalization  ?     Why  is  such  a  board  necessary  ? 

6.  When  are  taxes  assessed  in  your  community?  When  are  they 
paid  ?  To  what  official  ?  What  amount  goes  to  the  county  ?  What 
amount  to  the  state  ? 

7.  What  income  has  your  community  aside  from  taxes?  How 
much  money  was  received  from  the  state  last  year  for  the  school 
fund  ? 

8.  Has  your  community  issued  any  bonds  recently  ?  If  so,  for  how 
much  and  for  what  purpose? 

9.  What  prohibitions  are  there  in  your  state  constitution  in  regard 
to  local  finance  ?     State  finance  ? 

10.  From  what  sources  does  your  state  receive  the  most  of  its  in- 
come ?     Has  yoLU  state  a  debt  ? 

11.  Is  it  a  good  or  a  bad  thing  for  a  state  to  have  a  debt?     Why? 

12.  From  what  state  official  is  an  automobile  license  obtained? 
What  does  such  a  license  cost? 

13.  Name  some  of  the  activities  of  your  state  for  which  it  spends 
money. 

14.  What  is  the  name  of  the  present  tariff  law  ?  Name  other  famous 
tariffs.     Is  the  present  tariff  a  high  tariff  or  a  low  one  ? 

15.  At  what  presidential  elections  has  the  tariff  been  the  most  im- 
portant issue  ?     Which  party  won  ? 

16.  Should  the  one  who  finally  consumes  the  goods  pay  the  tariff  ? 

17.  What  incomes  are  exempt  from  the  federal  income  tax? 

18.  Read  what  is  printed  on  the  face  of  your  Liberty  or  Victory 
bond.     Make  a  report  to  the  class. 

19.  Are  there  any  instances  of  double  taxation  in  your  state,  that  is, 
a  tax  levied  on  the  same  thing  by  the  state  and  the  local  authorities, 
or  the  state  and  national  governments? 

20.  What  disadvantage  may  arise  from  the  fact  that  a  federal  tax  is 
an  indirect  tax  ? 


CHAITKK    XXI\' 
THE   MAKING   OF  THE  FEDERAL  CONSTITUTION 

The  I  iiitcd  States  is  ii  denioeruev .  It  is  a  jioxeriniiciit  \ty 
the  people  for  the  people.  All  the  officials  who  earry  on  the 
activities  about  which  you  have  studied  receive  their  powrr 
from  the  people.  All  our  officials  arc  |)ul)Iic  scr\aiits,  al- 
though many  of  them  seem  to  forget  that.  In  order  that 
these  servants  of  ours  may  know  tlieir  (hitie^  and  ju^t  what 
powers  they  ha\c,  "we  the  j)eoi)le  of  the  1  nited  States" 
have  drawu  up  a  set  of  rules  for  tlu-ir  gnidance.  'i'licse 
rules  we  call  the  Constitution  of  the  I  nited  .States.  Kach 
state,  too,  has  a  constitution  for  the  direction  of  its  citi/eiis 
and  its  state  and  local  officials.  Such  a  state  constitution 
may  not,  however,  conflict  in  any  nuimicr  with  that  of  the 
United  States. 

This  body  of  rules,  or  Constitution,  was  referred  to  by 
a  great  English  statesman  as  the  "  most  wonderful  docu- 
ment ever  struck  oif  I)\'  tiu-  brain  n|'  man  at  one  time."  It 
is  true  that  the  docunu-nt  was  actually  written  at  onetime, 
but  it  is  not  true  that  the  Constitution  was  made  at  one  time. 
It  is  made  uj)  of  many  ideas  taken  fri>m  many  siMirees. 
These  ideas  had  worked  out  succes.sfully  and  fortius  reiisiui 
were  incorporated  in  the  body  of  the  d<Kument.  The 
Constitution  is  the  result  of  growth  just  the  siimc  as  the 
Union  is  a  result  of  gro^vth. 

349 


350  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

Early  unions.  —  In  our  very  early  history  the  people  had 
some  idea  of  union.  Several  colonies  joined  together  to 
form  the  New  England  Confederation  in  order  to  fight  the 
French  and  Indians  successfully.  All  our  early  unions  were 
formed  from  some  military  necessity  or  to  protest  against 
wrong.  In  1754  a  congress  was  held  at  Albany  to  agree 
upon  measures  against  the  Indians.  Here  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin proposed  his  plan  of  union  of  the  colonies,  but  it  came  to 
naught.  The  Stamp  Act  Congress  met  in  1765  to  protest 
against  the  workings  of  the  Stamp  Act,  but  this  assembly 
did  not  last.  It  may  be  well  to  notice,  however,  that  in 
the  first  instance, /oz/r  colonies  united,  in  the  next,  seven,  and 
in  1765,  nine.  When  the  first  Continental  Congress  met  in 
1774,  twelve  colonies  were  represented.  When,  in  the  next 
year  the  second  Continental  Congress  met,  which  was  to 
last  until  1781,  all  the  thirteen  colonies  agreed  to  fight  against 
the  common  wrongs  and  danger.  In  spite  of  the  many 
things  done  by  this  Congress  to  carry  on  a  form  of  govern- 
ment during  the  Revolution,  one  of  the  prominent  men  of  the 
time  called  it  "  a  stable  of  stupid  cattle  that  stimibled  at  every 
step."  It  did,  however,  draw  up  the  Articles  of  Confedera- 
tion, but  they  were  not  accepted  by  the  states  until  1781. 

The  Critical  Period.  —  The  congress  elected  under  the 
Articles  did  not  have  much  power.  "  It  could  declare  every- 
thing but  could  do  nothing,"  because  it  was  based  upon  the 
sovereignty  of  the  states  and  not  of  the  people.  Washington 
said,  "  We  are  one  state  to-day,  and  thirteen  to-morrow." 
Foreign  states  would  not  recognize  us.  We  did  not  keep 
our  treaties  nor  pay  our  debts.  The  states  quarrelled  with 
one  another,  and  each  tried  to  get  the  advantage  over  its 
neighbor  states.  Riots  broke  out  in  many  states,  and  a 
company  of  drunken  soldiers  chased  the  congress  from  its 


MAKINC,    OF   THE   FEDERAL   f'OXSTITrTloN     ^'A 

meeting  place.  It  is  no  wonder  tli;it  we  s|)c;il<  nf  tlii>  time 
in  onr  iiistory  as  tlie  "  ("litical  rnidd.  " 

Preliminaries  of  the  Constitution.  So  critical  (li<l  the 
times  finally  become,  that  at  a  meeting  held  in  Amiapolis 
to  discuss  methods  of  enabling  Congress  to  regulate  com- 
merce, it  was  suggested  that  a  meeting  he  hel<l  in  I'hiladel|)hia 
to  revise  the  Articles  of  Conlederation.  Here.  (»n  May 
25,  1787,  delegates  came  from  all  the  states  except  Rhode 
Island.  It,  too,  might  haxc  been  reproented,  had  not  her 
greatest  citizen,  (lencral  Nathaniel  (Jreene,  a  hero  of  the 
Revolutionary  War,  died  of  a  sunstroke,  a  .short  time  before 
the  convention  met.  The  convention  went  far  beyond  its 
instructions,  for  instead  of  revising  the  Articles,  it  drew  up 
an  entirely  new  docmnent. 

When  the  (  onstitution  was  before  the  states  for  ratifica- 
tion, James  W'ilson,  one  of  th«'  delegates  from  r<inisylvania. 
told  the  following  story  :  "  The  business,  we  are  told,  which 
was  entrusted  to  the  late  convention,  was  nu-rely  to  amend 
the  Articles.  This  has  often  brought  to  my  mind  a  story  told 
of  Mr.  Pope,  [a  great  English  i)oet,]  who  it  is  well  known  was 
not  a  little  deformed.  It  was  customary  for  him  to  use  the 
phrase  'God  mend  me  '  when  any  little  accident  happened. 
One  evening  a  link  [torch]  boy  was  lighting  him  along,  and 
coming  to  a  gutter,  the  boy  jumped  nimbly  ov«t  it.  Mr. 
Pope  called  him  to  turn,  a.lding,  'God  mend  me.'  The 
boy  turning  to  light  him.  looked  at  him  and  repeate<i  '  (ukI 
mend  me  !  He  would  sooner  make  a  half  a  dozen  new  ones.' 
This  would  ai)ply  to  the  confederation,  for  it  would  be  easier 
to  make  another  than  to  amend  this." 

The  Constitutional  convention.  TIh-  convention  met 
behind  closed  doors.  Washin.gton  was  ch.»M-n  to  proide 
over  its  deliberations.     Franklin,  now  eighty-one  years  old. 


352  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

Hamilton,  and  Madison  were  among  the  most  influential 
delegates.  To  Madison,  perhaps,  more  than  to  any  one  else, 
we  owe  the  Constitution.  "  There  were  quarrels  and  much 
hitter  wrangling  and  some  of  the  delegates  went  home  in  dis- 
gust. There  was  a  great  danger  that  the  convention  would 
break  up,  when  a  compromise  was  reached."  "Yes,"  said 
Franklin,  "  when  a  joiner  wishes  to  fit  two  boards  he  some- 
times pares  off  a  little  from  both."  Three  times  this  "  paring " 
took  place,  and  compromises  were  reached  on  the  questions 
of  representation,  its  basis  and  the  control  of  commerce. 

After  the  settlement  of  the  compromises  the  convention 
decided  the  questions  of  the  executive  and  the  judiciary.  The 
relations  of  the  states  to  the  national  government  were  de- 
fined and  the  powers  of  Congress  were  decided  upon.  The 
great  difference  between  the  new  document  and  the  Articles 
of  Confederation  was  that  the  American  peoyh  and  not 
the  American  states  were  represented  in  the  government. 
It  is  to  this  difference  we  owe  the  fact  that  the  Constitution 
has  existed  for  so  many  years  with  so  few  changes. 

Some  one  at  this  time  ccmijiared  the  United  States  govern- 
ment to  an  old  man  who  had  thirteen  sons.  "  They  had 
built  a  big  house  and  all  lived  together  for  several  years, 
when  the  sons  grew  weary  of  the  paternal  roof  and  each  went 
out  and  built  a  hut  for  himself.  Then  trouble  began :  one 
had  his  corn  stolen,  another  lost  his  sheep  by  wolves,  an- 
other, his  crop  by  flood,  and  so  forth.  At  length  twelve 
of  them  begged  their  father  to  take  them  back,  and  he  gladly 
did  so.  But  the  thirteenth  still  held  aloof  and  at  last  went 
and  hanged  himself.     That  thirteenth  was  Rhode  Island." 

The  signing  of  the  Constitution  was  a  very  impressive 
occasion.  When  it  was  over  it  is  said  the  members  of  the 
convention  seemed  awe-struck.     Washington  sat  with  head 


MAKING    OF    TIIK    FEDERAL   COXSTITIJTIOX     IW^A 

bowed  ill  solemn  tlu)u;,Mit.  As  tlie  im-ctin^'  \v:is  hrcakiti;:  up, 
Franklin  rose  in  his  |)I;ice,  juid  i)(»iiitiiiL:  to  the  Lack  (.f  the 
President's  ehair,  on  which  was  pictured  a  hall'  sun  with 
blazint,'  }roU\vi\  rays,  said.  '"As  I  have  been  sitting;  here  iiil 
these  weeks  I  have  often  wondered  whether  yonder  sun  is 
rising  or  setting.  Now  I  know  it  is  a  rising  sun."  It  was 
decided  that  the  Constitution  as  written  out  should  be  pre- 
sented to  Congress  and  then  sent  to  the  states  for  aecej)tance. 
When  nine  states,  that  is,  two  thirds  of  their  number,  should 
have  agreed  to  it,  it  should  become  the  fundamental  law  of 
the  land. 

The  ratification  of  the  Constitution.  .\ftcr  ( 'ongress  had 
accepted  the  Constitution  there  was  much  l)itt(r  opposition 
among  the  states  to  its  a(lo])tion.  "  What  do  Hamilton  and 
Madison  know  about  making  a  e(>nstitution  ?  "  asked  tin- 
people.  They  were  (»iily  boys.  .\s  for  Franklin,  he  was 
so  old  he  was  in  his  second  childhood.  Wa-;hingti>n  might 
be  able  to  lead  an  army,  but  what  did  he  knt)W  about  j)oli- 
tics?  Finally  one  of  the  newspapers  went  so  far  as  to  eai! 
him  a  "  born  fool."  Xevertheless,  one  after  another  the 
states  began  to  ratify.  In  17S()  the  ninth  .state,  Xew  Hamp- 
shire, ratified,  and  was  followed  shortly  after  by  \'irgiiiia  and 
New  York.  North  (  arolina  and  !{li!!!lc  Island  diil  not  come 
under  the  "  New  Hoof,"  as  the  new  Constitution  was  popu- 
larly called,  until  after  the  inauguration  of  i'resident  Wash- 
ington. "  The  acceptance  of  the  Con.stitution  of  17S9  made 
the  American  people  a  nation,  l)y  giving  it  a  natioiuil  (lov- 
crnment  with  direct  authoritv  over  all  c-itizens." 


CHAPTER   XXV 
THE  CONSTITUTION   OF  THE  UNITED   STATES 

Amendments.  —  The  Constitution,  which  was  made  in 
the  manner  just  described,  has  stood  the  test  of  time  and 
has  had  comparatively  few  changes.  The  changes  made 
fall  into  four  groups.  The  first  group  is  sometimes  called 
the  "  Bill  of  Rights  "  and  is  composed  of  the  first  ten  amend- 
ments. They  are  so  called  because  they  prevent  "  the 
National  Government  from  violating  the  liberty  of  the 
people,  or  usurping  the  powder  of  the  states." 

When  Congress  met  in  its  first  session,  189  amendments 
were  suggested ;  out  of  these,  twelve  were  passed  by  Con- 
gress and  sul)mitted  to  the  people,  and  of  these,  ten  were 
ratified  and  made  a  part  of  the  Constitution  in  1791. 

Many  of  these  have  been  noted  in  previous  chapters,  but 
it  may  be  well  to  summarize  them  here. 

(1)  All  persons,  both  citizens  and  foreigners,  shall  have 
freedom  to  worship  as  they  please. 

(2)  Speech  and  the  press  shall  be  free. 

(3)  All  shall  be  free  from  search  or  seizure  both  in  their 
persons  and  in  their  homes  without  due  process  of  law. 

(4)  The  rights  of  persons  accused  of  crime  are  safeguarded. 

(5)  Amendment  ten  gives  a  rule  for  the  interpretation 
of  the  Constitution. 

The  second  group  consists  of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
amendments.     The  eleventh  regulates  the  manner  in  which  a 

354 


THE    CONSTITUTION-    OF    TIIK    rMTKI)    STA'I'KS     :',.").") 

state  may  be  sued.  No  om-  m;iv  mk-  any  state  witlioin  its 
consent.  The  twelfth  provides  for  a  fhaiif^'t-  in  th<-  method 
of  electing  the  President,  as  tlic  one  ( lioscji  at  the  making 
of  the  Constitution  did  not  work  well. 

The  third  group  consists  of  the  tliirtccnt ii,  f()urt<(  nth.and 
fifteenth  amendments,  which  were  ])assed  either  during  or  at 
the  close  of  the  war  between  the  states.  This  grouj)  legalized 
the  freeing  of  the  slave,  confirmed  his  citizenshij).  and  made 
him  a  voter.  These  amendments  have  not  worked  wi'Il  in 
practice  as  they  i)ut  the  control  of  the  South  in  the  hands 
of  a  very  ignorant  class  during  the  reconstruction  j)eriod. 
They  were  passed  in  a  time  of  great  bitterness  and  have 
been  considered  a  mistake.  Some  of  oin-  wisest  .statesmen 
have  said  that  these  three  amendments  should  imt  have 
been  passed  until  the  slaves  had  been  eflucated  and  taught 
what  citizenship  means.  President  Clevehmd  stated  well 
the  prineij)le  involved  when  he  said,  "  Pefore  we  ha\i'  a 
citizen,  we  must  first  ha\e  a  man." 

The  la.st  group,  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth,  eighteenth, 
and  nineteenth  amendments,  have  been  pa.ssed  in  recent 
years.  The  sixteenth  authorizes  Congress  to  levy  a  tax 
on  all  incomes  above  a  certain  amount  ;  the  seventeenth 
provides  for  the  election  of  I'nited  .'"States  senators  by  the 
people  of  the  states  rather  than  by  the  >tate  legisl.itures ; 
the  eighteenth  forbids  the  manufacture  or  tlu'  sab*  of  in- 
toxicating liciuors  as  a  beverage  ;  and  the  nineteenth  pro- 
vides for  equality  of  men  and  women  in  voting. 

How  the  changes  are  made. — The  Constitution  provides 
the  way  in  which  these  amendments  may  be  ma«le.  Con- 
gress by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  both  houses  —  the  Senate,  and 
the  House  of  Representatives  —  ma>  pruix'^-  an  amendment 
to  the  Constitution.     Such  an  aineiidnunt  i>  then  .submitted 


356  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

to  the  states,  and  if  passed  by  three  fourths  of  the  states, 
becomes  a  part  of  the  Constitution.  There  are  several  other 
ways  provided,  but  they  have  not  been  used. 

Contents  of  the  Constitution.  —  With  the  changes  men- 
tioned above,  the  Constitution  has  served  as  the  basis  of  our 
government  since  its  adoption.  It  states  who  the  oflBcials 
of  the  government  are  whom  the  people  are  to  vote  for, 
defines  their  duties,  and  states  their  powers.  It  specifies 
the  amount  of  control  the  national  government  has  oA'er  the 
states,  and  the  general  relation  of  the  states  with  each  other 
and  with  the  nation.  Certain  acts  are  forbidden  both  to  the 
nation  and  to  the  states,  and  arrangement  is  made  for  estab- 
lishment of  the  judiciary  department  of  the  federal  govern- 
ment. 

The  Unwritten  Constitution.  —  Though  the  form  of  this 
immortal  document  has  not  been  changed  much,  yet  it  is 
not  because  there  has  been  no  desire  for  changes;  in  fact 
more  than  two  thousand  amendments  have  been  proposed 
at  one  time  or  another.  It  is  because  of  the  difficulty  of 
amendment  that  so  few  changes  have  been  made.  For 
this  reason  there  has  sprung  up  what  is  known  as  the  "  Un- 
written Constitution."  The  great  body  of  laws  and  customs 
and  the  new  powers  our  government  has  assumed  make  up 
the  body  of  this  unwritten  constitution.  It  has  become 
as  fixed  as  though  it  had  been  written  down  when  the  original 
document  was  drafted.  It  has  been  called  "  the  flesh  and 
blood  of  the  constitution,  rather  than  its  skeleton." 

By  it  the  powers  of  the  President  have  been  greatly  in- 
creased. There  is  nothing  in  the  Constitution  which  gives 
him  the  power  of  selecting  a  cabinet  of  advisers,  but  custom 
has  made  it  an  accomplished  fact.  It  is  only  in  very  recent 
years  that  the  Cabinet  has  been  recognized  by  being  mea- 


THE    CONSTITUTION    OF    TTIK    I'NTTED    STATKS     357 

tioned  in  a  law.  Tlie  Presidriit  has  i\\v  jjowct  of  removing 
officials  even  thouj^jh  they  li;i\('  hccii  coiilirincd  hy  the 
Senate.  A  large  amount  of  tcrriinry  has  hcni  a<l(hil  to 
the  United  States,  though  the  ( 'on-^tiiution  (h>cs  not  say 
that  this  may  he  done.  During  the  great  luiro])ean  War. 
the  powers  of  the  President  were  greatly  inereased  through 
laws  passed  hy  Congress,  that  he  might  deal  with  the  n«'i'ds 
of  the  nation  as  tlu'y  should  arise.  The  electors  who  choose 
the  President  are  not  hoinid  hy  any  law  to  \ote  for  the  candi- 
dates of  the  difVerent  parties  who  are  \ot((l  for  at  the 
November  election,  hut.  following  the  Inwritten  Constitu- 
tion, they  always  do.  The  Constitution  says  nothing  as  to 
how  many  terms  the  President  may  serve,  hut  hy  custom  he 
is  restricted  to  two  terms. 

By  this  Unwritten  Constitution,  the  powers  of  Congress 
and  the  judiciary  have  been  increased.  The  committee 
system,  by  which  a  great  amount  of  the  i)usiness  of 
Congress  is  carried  on.  is  made  ])ossil)K'  hy  eu>toin. 
Through  the  implied  i)owers  of  tiie  Constitution,  Congress 
has  established  a  national  bank  and  the  i)resent  system  of 
Federal  Reserve  banks,  has  issued  pajjer  nioiie.\ .  e>tahli>hed  a 
tariff,  and  permitted  the  President  to  ?u)point  a  eonnnission 
to  govern  the  commerce  between  the  states.  A  member  of 
Congress  must  reside  in  the  district  from  which  he  is  cho.sen. 
The  right  of  the  higher  courts  to  interpret  the  meaning  of  the 
Constitution  is  now  considered  the  greater  i)art  of  their  iluty. 
though  it  was  not  so  in  the  beginning.  "Thus  the  .\meriean 
Constitution  has  changed  as  the  nation  has  ehangeti ;  has 
changed  in  the  spirit  with  which  men  ngard  it,  and  therefore 
in  its  own  spirit." 

State  and  federal  control.  We  have  two  governnn  nt.s 
which  seem  to  cover  the  same  ground  and  yet  are  separate 


358  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

in  their  action.  I\Ir.  James  Bryce,  a  celebrated  English 
writer,  says,  "  It  (government)  is  like  a  great  factory  wherein 
two  sets  of  machinery  are  at  work,  their  revolving  wheels 
apparently  intermixed,  their  hands  crossing  one  another,  yet 
each  doing  its  own  work  without  touching  or  hampering  the 
other.  To  keep  the  National  government  and  the  State 
governments  each  in  its  allotted  sphere  was  the  primary 
aim  of  those  who  formed  the  Constitution." 

Questions  for  Investigation 

1.  Read  the  first  nine  amendments  to  tlie  federal  Constitution.    In 
what  ways  do  these  amendments  affect  you  ? 

2.  What  are  tlie  provisions  of  the  federal  income  tax  which  affect 
you  ? 

3.  Read  the  seventeenth  amendment.     Why  was  this  amendment 
passed  ? 

4.  What  territory  has  been  added  to  the  United  States  by  treaty? 
Name  other  famous  treaties  in  our  history. 

5.  Name  some  of  the  more  important  matters  over  wliicli  both  the 
state  and  the  nation  have  control. 


SUGGESTIONS    FOR    REFERENCE   AM) 
READING 

SOURCE  MATEULVL 

The  American  City. 

Current  Opinion. 

The  Imlepemknt. 

The  Literary  Digest. 

The  New  York  Times  Current  History. 

The  Outlook. 

T/ie  lleview  of  Reviews. 

The  Search-Light  on   Congress.     (Nat'l   \'otcr.s  LeuLnie,   Washington 

D.  C.) 
The  Survey. 
The  World's  Work. 
The  World  Almanac. 
The  Congressional  Directory. 
The  official  book  piihlishod  hy  the  state  KoveniiiuMit.  e.f:.    Tlir   lid 

Book  of  New  York  State. 

Bulletins  issued  by  the  state  ami  federal  p)veruiiients.  partimlarly 
Bulletins  23,  28,  41  issued  by  the  V.  S.  Hnn-au  „f  Kd  neat  ion,  anil 
Circular  No.  5,  issued  by  the  Massachusetts  Stat*-  Hoard  of  Education. 
Copies  of  local  ordinances  and  bills  ami  laws  of  the  state. 

H(K)KS    FOR    Pri'Ii> 

Community  Civics  is  not  chiefly  a  tc.xt-liook  study,  yet  "a  text-book 
is  desirable  as  affording  a  compact  outline  stateineiu  of  sinial  and  civic 
activities." 

American  Patriotism  in  Prose  and  Vcr.te.     Macinillan.     PcK-ket  Classics. 
Ames,  Neiv  York  State  (Inrernment.     Macinillan.      Uepres<-nts  a  tyjH" 

of  special  pamphlet  available  for  the  study  of  the  nuichinery  of 

local  and  state  governments. 

359 


360  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

Andrews,  The  American  s  Creed  mid  its  Meaning.  Doubleday,  Page 
&  Co. 

Antin,  The  Promised  Ixind.     Houghton  Mifflin  Co. 

Deming  and  Bemis,  Stories  of  Patriotism.     Houghton  Mifflin  Co. 

Dole,  The  Young  Citizen.     Heath. 

Dunn,  Communitij  Civics.     Heath. 

Dunn,  The  Community  and  the  Citizen.     Heath. 

Franklin's  Autobiography.     Macmillan.     Pocket  Classics. 

Giles  and  Giles,  Vocational  Civics.     Macmillan. 

Hale,  E.  E.,  Man  Without  a  Country.     Macmillan.     Pocket  Classics. 

Hughes,  Com7nnnity  Civics.     Allyn  &  Bacon. 

Leavitt  and  Brown,  Elementary  Social  Science.     Macmillan. 

Morgan,  Roosevelt:  The  Boy  and  the  Man.  (School  Edition.)  Mac- 
millan. 

Nida,  City,  State,  and  Nation.     Macmillan. 

Riis,  The  Makiug  of  an  American.     Macmillan. 

Roosevelt,  Autobiography.     Scribner. 

Roosevelt,  Letters  to  his  Children.     Scribner. 

Smith,  J.  F.,  Our  Neighborhood.     Winston. 

Sullivan,  Government  of  New  York  State.     Scribner. 

Turkington,  My  Country.     Ginn. 

Ziegler  and  Jaquette,  Our  Community.     Winston. 

BOOKS  FOR  TEACHERS 

The  books  listed  above  for  pupils. 
Ashley,  The  New  Civics.     Macmillan. 
Beard,  American  City  Government.     Century. 
Beard,  American  Citizenship.     Macmillan. 
Betts,  New  Ideals  in  Rural  Schools.     Houghton  Mifflin  Co. 
Boynton,  Actual  Government  of  New   York  State.     (For  N.  Y.  State 

teachers.)     Ginn. 
Boy  Scouts,  Hand  Book  for  Scoutmasters,  527  Fifth  Ave.,  New  York 

City. 
Boy  Scouts,  Manual,  527  Fifth  Ave.,  New  York  City. 
Bryce,  James,  The  American  Commonwealth.     Macmillan. 
Bryce  on  American  Democracy.     Macmillan.     Pocket  Classics. 
Burch,  American  Economic  Problems.     Macmillan. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR   REFERENCE   AND    READING      3G1 

Burch  and  rattcrson,  American  Sucial  PrDlAeim.     Macinillaii. 

Cubberly,  E.  P.,  Improvement  of  Rural  Schools.     Houglitoii  Mifllin  Co. 

Curtis,  Education  Through  Plai/.     Macmillaii. 

Davis,  J.  I}.,  Vocational  and  Moral  Guidance.     Ginn. 

Ely  and  Wicker,  Elementary  Principles  of  Economics.     Macmillan. 

Guitteau,  Preparing  for  Citizenship.     Houghton  Mifflin  Co. 

Hart,  Educational  Resources  of  Village  and  Rural  Communities.     Mac- 
millan. 

Haskin,  American  Government.     Lippincott. 

Hill,  Teaching  of  Civics.     Houghton  Mifflin  Co. 

Johnson,  Old  Time  Schools  and  School  Book-.i.     Macmillan. 

Judd,   Le.^sons  in   Communiti/  and  National   Life.     U.   S.    Hiircaii   of 
Education. 

Latane,  From  Isolation  to  Lradrr.ship.     Douldcday,  Page  &  Co. 
McFee,    The    Teacher,    fhr    School,    and    the    Communitij.      American 

Book  Co. 
McNaught,  Training  in  Courtesy.     U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ivliication.     Bui. 

57. 
Macy  &  Gannaway,  Comparative  Free  Government.     Maciuillaii. 
Marshall  &  Lyon,  Our  Economic  Organization.     Macmillan. 
Munro,  W.  B.,  Government  of  American  Cities.     Macmillan. 
Powers,  America  Among  the  Nations.     Macmillan. 
Rexford,  Community  Civics  for  the  City  of  New  Yorh.     Outlook. 
Roosevelt,  American  Ideals.     Putnam. 

Simpson,  Mabel,  The  Socialized  Recitation  in  Ilislon/.     Macmillan. 
Steiner,  The  Immigrant  Tide.     Revell. 
Studebaker,  Our  Country's  Call  to  Service.     Scott. 
Sullivan,  James,  Government  of  Xcw  Yorh.     (For  X.  V.  ."^tatc  teachers.) 

Scribner. 
Towne,  Social  Problems.     Macmillan. 
Wilson,  International  Ideals.     Harper. 
Weaver  and  Byler,  Profitahle  I'ocat ions  for  Girls.     Barnes. 
Weaver  and  Byler,  Profitahle  I'ocalion.i  for  Roys.     Barnes. 

For  additional  references  see  the  .Syllabus  on  Civics  and  Patrioti-^m 
issued  by  the  New  York  State  Department  of  Education,  and  Circular 
No.  5  issued  bv  the  State  Board  of  Education  <>f  MassacluLsetts. 


APPFA'DIX' 
CONSTITI  riox  OF  rill';  lxithd  states 

We  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  Order  to  form  a  mort-  pi'rfi'ct 
Union,  establish  Justife,  insure  donicstic  Trancpiility,  provide  for  the 
common  defence,  promote  the  general  Welfare,  and  secure  the  Blessings 
of  Liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  Posterity,  do  ordain  and  establish  this 
CoxsTiTUTiox  for  tlie  United  States  of  America. 

Aktk'le  I. 

Section  1.  All  legislative  Powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in 
a  Congress  of  the  United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives. 

Seciion  2.  [1]  The  House  of  llepresentatives  shall  be  composed 
of  Members  chosen  every  second  Year  by  the  Pi-ople  of  the  several 
States,  and  the  Electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the  Qualifications 
requisite  for  Electors  of  the  most  numerous  Branch  of  the  State  Ix-gis- 
lature. 

[2]  No  person  shall  be  a  ReprescMitative  who  shall  not  have  attaine<l 
to  the  age  of  twenty-five  Years,  and  Ix-en  seven  ^"ears  a  Citizen  of  the 
United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  wlicn  ele<te(l.  be  an  Inliabitant  of 
that  State  in  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

[3]  [Representatives  and  direct  Taxes  shall  Im-  ap|M>rtioned  among 
the  several  States  which  may  be  included  within  this  T'nion.  aciord- 
ing  to  their  respective  Numbers,  which  shall  be  determined  by 
adding  to  the  whole  Number  of  free  Persons,  including  tho.se 
boimd  to  Service  for  a  Term  of  Years,  and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed, 
three-fifths  of  all  other  Persons.]  The  actual  Enumeration  shall  be 
made  within  three  Years  after  the  first  Meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States,  and  within  every  substnjuent  Term  of  ten  Years,  in  such 

363 


364  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

Manner  as  they  shall  by  Law  direct.  The  Number  of  Representatives 
shall  not  exceed  one  for  every  thirty  Thousand,  but  each  State  shall 
have  at  least  one  Representative;  and  until  such  enumeration  shall 
be  made,  the  State  of  New  Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to  chuse  three, 
Massachusetts  eight,  Rhode-Island  and  Providence  Plantations  one, 
Connecticut  five,  New  York  six,  New  Jersey  four,  Pennsylvania  eight, 
Delaware  one,  Maryland  six,  Virginia  ten.  North  Carolina  five,  South 
Carolina  five,  and  Georgia  tliree. 

[4]  When  vacancies  happen  in  tlie  Representation  from  any  State, 
the  Executive  Authority  thereof  shall  issue  Writs  of  Election  to  fill 
such  Vacancies. 

[.5]  Tlie  House  of  Representatives  shall  chuse  their  Speaker  and 
other  Officers;  and  shall  have  the  sole  Power  of  Impeachment. 

Section  3.  [1]  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed 
of  tv70  Senators  from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  Legislature  thereof, 
for  six  Years ;   and  each  Senator  shall  have  one  Vote. 

[2]  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  Consequence  of 
the  first  Election,  they  shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into  three 
Classes.  The  Seats  of  the  Senators  of  the  first  Class  shall  be  vacated 
at  the  Expiration  of  the  second  Year,  of  the  second  Class  at  the  Expira- 
tion of  the  fourth  Year,  and  of  the  third  Class  at  the  Expiration  of  the 
sixth  Year,  so  that  one-third  may  be  chosen  every  second  Year ;  and 
if  Vacancies  happen  by  Resignation,  or  other^Aise,  during  the  Recess 
of  the  Legislature  of  any  State,  the  Executive  thereof  may  make  tem- 
porary Appointments  until  the  next  Meeting  of  the  Legislature,  which 
shall  then  fill  such  Vacancies. 

[3]  Xo  Person  shall  be  a  Senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to 
the  Age  of  thirty  Years,  and  been  nine  Years  a  Citizen  of  the  L'nited 
States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  Inhabitant  of  that  State 
for  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

[i]  The  Vice  President  of  the  United  States  shall  be  President  of 
the  Senate,  but  shall  have  no  Vote,  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

[5]  The  Senate  shall  chuse  their  other  Officers,  and  also  a  Presi- 
dent pro  tempore,  in  the  Absence  of  the  Vice  President,  or  when  he 
shall  e.xercise  the  Office  of  President  of  the  United  States. 

[6]  The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  Power  to  try  all  Impeachments. 
When  sitting  for  that  Purpose,  they  shall  be  on  Oath  or  Affirmation. 


APPENDIX  3G5 

Whon  tho  President  of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the  Chief  Justice 
shall  preside :  And  no  Person  shall  be  convicted  without  the  Con- 
currence of  two-thirds  of  the  Members  present. 

[7]  Judgment  in  Cases  of  Inipeacliinent  shall  not  extend  further 
than  to  removal  from  Office,  and  distpialification  to  hold  and  enjoy 
any  Office  of  honor,  Trust  or  Profit  under  the  United  States:  but 
the  Party  convicted  shall  nevertheless  be  liable  and  subject  to  Indict- 
ment, Trial,  Judgment  and  Punishment,  according  to  Law. 

Section  4.  [1]  The  Times,  Places  and  Maimer  of  holding  Elec- 
tions for  Senators  and  Representatives,  shall  be  prescribed  in  each 
State  by  the  Legislature  thereof;  but  the  Congress  may  at  any  time 
by  Law  make  or  alter  such  Regulations,  except  as  to  the  Places  of 
chusing  Senators. 

[2]  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  Year,  and 
such  Meeting  shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they 
shall  by  Law  appoint  a  different  Day. 

Section  5.  [1]  Each  House  shall  be  the  Judge  of  the  Elections, 
Returns  and  Qualifications  of  its  own  Members,  and  a  ^Lljo^ity  of 
each  shall  constitute  a  Quorum  to  do  Business ;  but  a  smaller  Num- 
ber may  adjourn  from  day  to  day,  and  may  be  authorized  to  compel 
the  attendance  of  absent  Members,  in  such  Manner,  and  under  such 
Penalties  as  each  House  may  provide. 

[2]  Each  House  may  determine  the  Rules  of  its  Proceedings,  punish 
its  Members  for  disorderly  Behaviour,  and,  witii  the  Concurrence 
of  two-thirds,  expel  a  ^Member. 

[3]  Each  House  shall  keep  a  Journal  of  its  Proceedings,  and  from 
time  to  time  publish  the  same,  excejiting  such  Parts  as  may  in  their 
Judgment  require  Secrecy;  and  the  Yeas  and  Nays  of  the  Members  of 
either  House  on  any  question  shall,  at  the  Desire  of  oni'-fifth  of  those 
Present,  be  entered  on  the  Journal. 

[4]  Neither  House,  during  the  Session  of  Congress,  shall,  without 
the  Consent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to 
any  other  Place  than  that  in  which  the  two  Houses  shall  be  sitting. 

Section  6.  [1]  The  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  receive  a 
Compensation  for  their  Services,  to  be  ascertftined  by  law,  and  paid 


366  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

out  of  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States.  They  shall  in  all  Cases, 
except  Treason,  Felony,  and  Breach  of  the  Peace,  be  privileged  from 
Arrest  during  their  Attendance  at  the  Session  of  their  respective  Houses, 
and  in  going  to  and  returning  from  the  same;  and  for  any  Speech 
or  Debate  in  either  House,  they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other 
Place. 

[2]  No  Senator  or  Representative  shall,  during  the  Time  for  which 
he  was  elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  Office  under  the  Authority 
of  the  United  States,  which  shall  have  been  created,  or  the  Emolu- 
ments whereof  shall  have  been  encreased  during  such  time;  and  no 
Person  holding  any  Office  under  the  United  States,  shall  be  a  Member 
of  either  House  during  his  Continuance  in  Office. 

Section  7.  [1]  All  Bills  for  raising  Revenue  shall  originate  in  the 
House  of  Representatives;  but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur 
with  Amendments  as  on  other  Bills. 

[2]  Every  Bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Representatives 
and  the  Senate,  shall,  before  it  become  a  Law,  be  presented  to  the 
President  of  the  United  States;  If  he  approve  he  shall  sign  it,  but 
if  not  he  shall  return  it,  with  his  Objections  to  that  House  in  which  it 
shall  have  originated,  who  shall  enter  the  Objections  at  large  on 
their  Journal,  and  proceed  to  reconsider  it.  If  after  such  Recon- 
sideration two-thirds  of  that  House  shall  agree  to  pass  the  Bill,  it 
shall  be  sent,  together  with  the  Objections,  to  the  other  House,  by 
which  it  shall  likewise  be  reconsidered,  and  if  approved  by  two-thirds 
of  that  House,  it  shall  become  a  Law.  But  in  all  such  Cases  the  Votes 
of  both  Houses  shall  be  determined  by  Yeas  and  Nays,  and  the  Names 
of  the  Persons  voting  for  and  against  the  Bill  shall  be  entered  on  the 
Journal  of  each  House  respectively.  If  any  Bill  shall  not  be  returned 
by  the  President  within  ten  Days  (Sundays  excepted)  after  it  shall 
have  been  presented  to  him,  the  Same  shall  be  a  Law,  in  like  Manner 
as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless  the  Congress  by  their  Adjournment  pre- 
vent its  Return,  in  which  Case  it  shall  not  be  a  Law. 

[3]  Every  Order,  Resolution,  or  Vote  to  which  the  Concurrence 
of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except 
on  a  question  of  Adjournment)  shall  be  presented  to  the  President 
of  the  United  States  and  before  the  Same  shall  take  Effect,  shall  be 
approved  by  him,  or  being  disapproved  by  liim,  shall  be  repassed  by 


APPENDIX  3()7 

two-thirds  of  the  Sonato  and  House  of  Kcprpscntativcs,  arrordiii^  to 
the  Rules  and  Kiinitatious  prcscrilud  in  the  Case  of  a  Hill. 

Sections.  The  Conj^jress  sliall  have  Power  [1|  To  lay  and  collect 
Taxes,  Duties,  Imposts  and  Excises,  to  i)ay  the  Debts  and  jjrovide 
for  the  common  Defence  and  general  Welfare  of  the  Inited  States; 
but  all  duties.  Imposts  and  Excises  shall  he  uniform  throughout  the 
United  States ; 

[2]  To  borrow  Money  on  tln'  cnilil  of  the  I'liiteil  States; 

[3]  To  regulate  Commerce  with  foreign  Nations,  and  among  the 
several  States,  and  with  the  Indian  Tribes; 

[4]  To  establish  an  uniform  Rule  of  Naturalization,  and  unilorm 
Laws  on  the  subject  of  Bankruptcies  throughout  the  I'nited  States; 

[5]  To  coin  Money,  regulate  the  \'alue  thereof,  and  of  foreign  Coin, 
and  fix  the  Standard  of  Weights  and  Measures ; 

[6]  To  provide  for  tlie  Punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  Securities 
and  current  Coin  of  the  United  States; 

[7]  To  establish  Post  Offices  and  post  Roads ; 

[S]  To  promote  the  Progress  of  Science  and  useful  Arts  by  securing 
for  limited  Times  to  Authors  and  Inventors  the  exclusive  Right  to  their 
respective  Writings  and  Discoveries; 

[9]  To  constitute  Tribunals  inferior  to  the  sui)reme  Court ; 

[10]  To  define  and  punish  Piracies  and  Felonies  coimnitted  on 
the  high  Seas,  and  Offences  against  the  Law  of  Nations; 

[11]  To  declare  War,  grant  lA'tters  of  Marque  and  Reprisal,  and 
make  Rules  concerning  Captures  on  Land  and  Water; 

[12]  To  raise  and  suj)port  Armies,  but  no  Ai)i)roj)riation  of  Money 
to  that  Use  shall  be  for  a  longer  Term  than  two  Years; 

[13]  To  provide  and  maintain  a  Navy; 

[14]  To  make  Rules  for  the  Covernmeiit  and  Regulation  of  the  land 
and  naval  Forces; 

[15]  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  Militia  to  execute  the  Laws 
of  the  Union,  suppress  Insurrections  and  rejK"!  Invasions; 

[16]  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining,  the  Militia, 
and  for  governing  such  Part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  ."NTvice 
of  the  United  States,  reserving  to  the  States  respectively,  the  Apj)oint- 
ment  of  the  Officers,  and  the  Authority  of  training  the  Militia  accord- 
ing to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  Congress. 


368  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

[17]  To  exercise  exclusive  Legislation  in  all  Cases  whatsoever,  over 
such  District  (not  exceeding  ten  Miles  square)  as  may,  by  Cession 
of  particular  States,  and  the  Acceptance  of  Congress  become  the  Seat 
of  the  Government  of  the  United  States,  and  to  exercise  like  Authority 
over  all  Places  purchased  by  the  Consent  of  the  Legislature  of  the 
State  in  which  the  Same  shall  be,  for  the  Erection  of  Forts,  Magazines, 
Arsenals,  dock- Yards,  and  other  needful  Buildings;  — And 
/-^[IS]  To  make  all  Laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for 
carrying  into  Execution  the  foregoing  Powers,  and  all  other  Powers 
vested  by  this  Constitution  in  the  Government  of  the  United  States, 
or  in  any  Department  or  Officer  thereof. 

Section  9.  [1]  The  Migration  or  Importation  of  such  Persons  as 
any  of  the  States  now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit,  shall  not  be 
prohibited  by  the  Congress  prior  to  the  Y^ear  one  thousand  eight  hun- 
dred and  eight,  but  a  Tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed  on  such  Importation, 
not  exceeding  ten  dollars  for  each  Person. 

[2]  The  Privilege  of  the  Writ  of  Habeas  Corpus  shall  not  be  sus- 
pended, vmless  when  in  Cases  of  Rebellion  or  Invasion  the  pubUc  Safety 
may  require  it. 

[3]  No  Bill  of  Attainder  or  ex  post  facto  Law  shall  be  passed. 

[4]  No  Capitation,  or  other  direct,  Tax  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  Pro- 
portion to  the  Census  or  Enumeration  hereinbefore  directed  to  be 
taken. 

[5]  No  Tax  or  Duty  shall  be  laid  on  Articles  exported  from  any  State. 

[6]  No  Preference  shall  be  given  by  any  Regidation  of  Commerce 
or  Revenue  to  the  Ports  of  one  State  over  those  of  another :  nor  shall 
Vessels  bound  to,  or  from,  one  State,  be  obligeil  to  enter,  clear,  or 
pay  Duties  in  another. 

[7]  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  Treasiu"y,  but  in  Consequence 
of  Appropriations  made  by  Law;  and  a  regular  Statement  and  Account 
of  the  Receipts  and  Expenditures  of  all  pubhc  Money  shall  be  pub- 
lished from  time  to  time. 

[8]  No  title  of  Nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States :  And 
no  Person  holding  any  Office  of  Profit  or  Trust  under  them,  shall, 
without  the  Consent  «f  the  Congress,  accept  of  any  present.  Emolu- 
ment, Office,  or  Title,  of  any  kind  whatever,  from  any  King,  Prince, 
or  foreign  State. 


APPENDIX  3()9 

< 

Seciion  10.  [1]  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  Treaty,  Allianee, 
or  Confederation ;  grant  Ix'tters  of  Man|ue  and  l{e|)risal ;  coin  Money ; 
emit  Bills  of  Credit;  make  any  Thing  hut  gold  and  silver  Coin  a  Tender 
in  Payment  of  Debts;  pass  any  Bill  of  Attainder,  ex  post  facto  Law, 
or  Law  impairing  the  obligation  of  Contracts;  or  grant  any  Title  of 
Nobility. 

[2]  No  State  shall,  without  the  Consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any 
Imposts  or  Duties  on  Imports  or  Exports,  except  what  may  be  abso- 
lutely necessary  for  executing  its  inspection  Laws :  and  the  net 
Produce  of  all  Duties  and  Imjjosts,  laid  by  any  State  on  lTni)orts  or 
Exports,  shall  be  for  the  Use  of  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States;  and 
all  such  Laws  shall  be  subject  to  the  Revision  and  Controul  of  the  Con- 
gress. 

[3]  No  State  shall,  without  the  Consent  of  Congress,  lay  any  Duty 
of  Tonnage,  keep  Troops,  or  Ships  of  War  in  time  of  Peace,  enter  into 
any  Agreement  or  Compact  with  another  State,  or  with  a  foreign 
Power,  or  engage  in  War  unless  actually  invaded,  or  in  such  imminent 
Danger  as  will  not  admit  of  Delay. 

Artk'LK.  II. 

Section  I.  [1]  The  executive  Power  shall  be  vested  in  a  President 
of  the  United  States  of  America.  He  shall  hold  his  Office  during  the 
Term  of  four  Years,  and,  together  with  the  Nice-President,  chosen 
for  the  same  term,  be  elected,  as  follows : 

[2]  Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  Manner  as  the  Lt^gislature 
thereof  may  direct,  a  Number  of  Electors,  ecpial  to  the  whole  Num- 
ber of  Senators  and  Ilepresentatives  to  which  the  State  may  be  en- 
titled in  the  Congress:  but  no  Senator  or  Ilepresentative,  or  Person 
holding  an  Office  of  Trust  or  Profit  under  the  United  States,  shall  be 
appointed  an  Elector.  [The  Electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective 
States,  and  vote  by  Ballot  for  two  Persons,  of  whom  one  at  lea.st  shall 
not  be  an  Inhaliitant  of  the  same  State  with  them.selves.  And  they 
shall  make  a  List  of  all  the  Persons  voted  for,  and  of  the  Number  of 
Votes  for  each;  which  Li.st  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit 
sealed  to  the  .Seat  of  the  Government  of  the  United  States,  directed 
to  the  President  of  the  ."Senate.  The  President  of  the  Senate  shall, 
in  the  Presence  of  the  Senate  and  llnuse  of  Hcproentativcs,  open  all 


370  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

the  Certificates,  and  the  V'otes  shall  then  be  counted.  Tlie  Person 
having  the  greatest  Number  of  Votes  shall  be  the  President,  if  such 
Number  be  a  Majority  of  the  whole  Number  of  Electors  appointed ; 
and  if  there  be  more  than  one  who  have  such  Majority,  and  have  an 
equal  Number  of  Votes,  then  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  imme- 
diately chuse  by  Ballot  one  of  them  for  President ;  and  if  no  Person 
have  a  Majority,  then  from  the  five  highest  on  the  List  the  said  House 
shall  in  like  Manner  chuse  the  President.  But  in  chusing  the  Presi- 
dent, the  Votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  Representation  from  each 
State  having  one  Vote;  A  quorum  for  this  Purpose  shall  consist  of  a 
Member  or  Members  from  two-thirds  of  the  States,  and  a  Majority 
of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  Choice.  In  every  Case,  after 
the  Choice  of  the  President,  the  Person  having  the  greatest  Number 
of  Votes  of  the  Electors  shall  be  the  Vice-President.  But  if  there 
should  remain  two  or  more  who  have  equal  Votes,  the  Senate  shall 
chuse  from  them  by  Ballot  the  Vice  President.] 

[3]  The  Congress  may  determine  the  Time  of  chusing  the  Electors, 
and  the  Day  on  which  they  shall  give  their  Votes;  which  Day  shall 
be  the  same  throughout  the  United  States. 

[4]  No  Person  except  a  natural  born  Citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States,  at  the  time  of  the  Adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall 
be  eligible  to  the  Office  of  President;  neither  shall  any  Person  be 
eligible  to  that  Office  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  Age  of  thirty 
five  Years,  and  been  fourteen  Years  a  Resident  within  the  United 
States. 

[.5]  In  Case  of  the  Removal  of  the  President  from  Office,  or  of  his 
Death,  Resignation,  or  Inability  to  discharge  the  Powers  and  Duties 
of  the  said  Office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on  the  Vice  President,  and  the 
Congress  may  by  Law  pro\ade  for  the  Case  of  Removal,  Death,  Resigna- 
tion, or  Inability,  both  of  the  President  and  Vice-President,  declaring 
what  Officer  shall  then  act  as  President,  and  such  Officer  shall  act 
accordingly,  until  the  Disability  be  removed,  or  a  President  shall  be 
elected. 

[6]  The  President  shall,  at  stated  Times,  receive  for  his  Services, 
a  Compensation,  which  shall  neither  be  encreased  nor  diminished  during 
the  Period  for  which  he  shall  have  been  elected,  and  he  shall  not  receive 
within  that  Period  any  other  Emolument  from  the  United  States,  or 
any  of  them. 


APPFA'DTX  371 

[7]  Hcforc  he  enter  mi  tlie  Hxe(iiti.)n  of  liis  Omce.  he  shall  take 
the  followiii};  Oath  or  Affirmation  :  —  "  I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  aflirm) 
that  I  will  faithfnily  exeeute  the  Otli.c  of  President  of  the  United  Stat.-s. 
and  will  to  the  hest  of  my  Ahility,  preMTVi-.  protect  and  d.-f.-nd  tlie 
Constitution  of  the  United  States." 


Section  2.  [1]  The  President  shall  he  Connnander  in  Chief  of  the 
Army  and  Navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  Militia  of  the  several 
States,  when  called  into  the  actual  Service  of  the  United  States;  he 
may  require  the  Opinion,  in  Writing,  of  the  princii)al  Officer  in  each 
of  the  exeeutive  Departments,  upon  any  Suhjeet  relatinj;  to  the  Duties 
of  their  respective  Officers,  and  he  shall  have  Power  to  jjrant  Reprieves 
and  Pardons  for  Offences  ajjainst  the  United  States,  except  in  Cases 
of  Impeachment. 

[2]  He  shall  have  Power,  by  and  with  the  Advice  and  Consent  of 
the  Senate,  to  make  Treaties,  provided  two-thinls  of  the  Senators 
present  concur;  and  he  shall  nominate,  and  hy  and  with  the  Advice 
and  Consent  of  the  Senate,  shall  appoint  Aml)assarlors,  other  public 
Ministers  and  Consuls,  Judges  of  the  supreme  Court,  and  all  other 
Officers  of  the  United  States,  whose  Ajipointments  are  not  hen-in 
otherwise  provided  for,  and  which  shall  he  estal)lishe<l  by  Law :  but 
the  Congress  may  by  Law  vest  the  Api)ointinent  of  such  inferior  Officers, 
as  they  think  proper,  in  the  President  alone,  in  the  C«)urts  of  Law, 
or  in  the  Heads  of  Departments. 

[3]  The  President  shall  have  Power  to  fill  up  all  Vacancies  that 
may  happen  during  the  Recess  of  the  Senate,  by  granting  Commis- 
sions which  shall  expire  at  the  End  of  tlicir  next  Session. 

Section's.  He  shall  from  time  to  lime  give  to  the  Congress  Lifor- 
mation  of  the  State  of  the  Union,  an<l  reconnnend  to  their  Consitlera- 
tion  such  Measures  as  he  shall  ju<lge  necessary  and  expedient ;  he  may, 
on  extraordinary  Occasions,  convene  both  Houses,  or  either  of  them, 
and  in  Case  of  Disagreement  between  them,  with  Respect  to  the  Time 
of  Adjournment,  he  may  adjourn  them  to  such  Time  as  In-  shall  think 
proper;  he  shall  receive  Ambassadors  and  other  public  Ministers; 
he  shall  take  Care  that  the  Laws  be  faithfully  exiH-utni,  and  shall  Com- 
mission all  the  Officers  of  the  United  States. 


372  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

Section  4.  The  President,  Vice-President  and  all  civil  Officers 
of  the  United  States,  shall  be  removed  from  Office  on  Impeachment 
for,  and  Conviction  of,  Treason,  Bribery,  or  other  high  Crimes  and 
Misdemeanors. 

Article.  III. 

Section  1.  The  judicial  Power  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  vested 
in  one  supreme  Court,  and  in  such  inferior  Courts  as  the  Congress  may 
from  time  to  time  ordain  and  establish.  The  Judges,  both  of  the 
supreme  and  inferior  Courts,  shall  hold  their  Offices  during  good  Be- 
haviour, and  shall,  at  stated  Times,  receive  for  their  Services,  a  Com- 
pensation, which  shall  not  be  diminished  during  their  Continuance 
in  Office. 

Section  2.  [1]  Tlie  judicial  Power  shall  extend  to  all  Cases,  in  Law 
and  Equity,  arising  under  this  Constitution,  the  Laws  of  the  United 
States,  and  Treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  their 
Authority ;  —  to  all  cases  affecting  Ambassadors,  other  public  Ministers 
and  Consuls; — to  all  cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime  Jurisdiction; 

—  to  Controversies  to  which  the    United    States  shall  be  a  Party ; 

—  to  Controversies  between  two  or  more  States ;  —  between  a  State 
and  Citizen  of  another  State ;  —  between  Citizens  of  different  States  — 
between  Citizens  of  the  same  State  claiming  Lands  under  Grants  of 
different  States,  and  between  a  State,  or  the  Citizens  thereof,  and 
foreign  States,  Citizens  or  Subjects. 

[2]  In  all  Cases  affecting  Ambassadors,  other  public  Ministers 
and  Consuls,  and  those  in  which  a  State  shall  be  Party,  the  supreme 
Court  shall  have  original  Jurisdiction.  In  all  the  other  Cases  before 
mentioned,  the  supreme  Court  shall  have  appellate  Jurisdiction,  both 
as  to  Law  and  Fact,  with  such  Exceptions,  and  under  such  Regula- 
tions as  the  Congress  shall  make. 

[.3]  The  Trial  of  all  Crimes,  except  in  Cases  of  Impeachment,  shall 
be  by  Jury;  and  such  Trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said 
Crimes  shall  have  been  committed ;  but  when  not  committed  within 
any  State,  the  Trial  shall  be  at  such  Place  or  Places  as  the  Congress 
may  by  Law  have  directed. 

Section  3.  [1]  Treason  against  the  United  States,  shall  consist  only 
in  levying  War  against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  Enemies,  giving 


APPEND  FX  373 

them  Aid  and  Comfort.  No  IVrsoii  sliull  l)c  convirtod  of  Treason 
unless  on  the  Testimony  of  two  Witnesses  to  the  same  overt  Aft.  or  on 
Confession  in  open  Court. 

[2]  The  Conpress  shall  have  Power  to  declare  the  Piiiiislimcnt  of 
Treason,  but  no  Attainder  of  Treason  shall  work  Corniption  of  Hiood, 
or  Forfeiture  except  during  the  Life  of  the  Person  attainted. 

AUTK  I.K.     I\'. 

Section  1.  Full  Faith  and  Credit  shall  he  j;iven  in  ea«h  State  to  the 
public  Acts,  Records,  and  juflicial  Procee<lings  of  every  other  Slate. 
And  the  Congress  may  by  general  Laws  prescribe  the  Marnier  in  which 
such  Acts,  Records  and  Proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the  Effect 
thereof. 

Section2.  [1]  The  Citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitlt<l  to  all 
Privileges  and  Immunities  of  Citizens  in  the  several  States. 

[2]  A  Person  charged  in  any  State  with  Treason,  Felony  or  other 
Crime,  who  shall  flee  from  Justice,  and  be  found  in  another  State, 
shall  on  Demand  of  the  executive  .\uthority  of  the  State  from  which 
he  fled,  be  delivered  up,  to  be  removed  to  the  State  ha\  iiig  Jurisdiction 
of  the  Crime. 

[3]  No  Person  held  to  Service  or  Labour  in  one  .*^tate,  under  tlie 
Laws  thereof,  escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  Consecpience  <if  any  Law 
or  Regulation  therein,  be  discharged  from  such  Service*  or  Labour, 
but  shall  be  delivered  up  on  (laiui  of  the  Party  to  whom  such  .S-rvice 
or  Labour  may  be  <lue. 

Section  o.  [l|  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  C«>ngress  into 
this  Union;  but  no  new  State  shall  be  formed  or  erecte<l  within  the 
Jurisdiction  of  any  other  State;  nor  any  State  be  formed  by  the  Junc- 
tion of  two  or  more  States,  or  Parts  of  .States,  without  the  Consent 
of  the  Legislatures  of  the  .States  concernetl  as  well  as  <»f  the  Congress. 

[2]  The  Congress  shall  have  Power  to  di->|M»se  of  and  nu>ke  all  need- 
ful Rules  and  Regulations  respecting  the  Territory  or  other  ProjKTty 
belonging  to  the  I'nited  .States;  and  nothing  in  this  Constitution  >hall 
be  so  construed  as  to  Prejudice  any  Claims  of  the  Utut«*<l  .State"*,  oc 
of  any  particular  State. 


374  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

Section  4.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  State  in 
this  Union  a  Republican  Form  of  Government,  and  shall  protect 
each  of  them  against  Invasion;  and  on  Application  of  the  Legisla- 
ture, or  of  the  Executive  (when  the  Legislature  cannot  be  convened) 
against  domestic  Violence. 

Article.  V. 

The  Congress,  whenever  two-thirds  of  both  Houses  shall  deem  it 
necessary,  shall  propose  Amendments  to  this  Constitution,  or,  on 
the  Application  of  the  Legislatures  of  two-thirds  of  the  several  States, 
shall  call  a  Convention  for  proposing  Amendments,  which,  in  either 
Case,  shall  be  valid  to  all  Intents  and  Purposes  as  Part  of  this  Con- 
stitution, when  ratified  by  the  Legislatures  of  three-fourths  of  the 
several  States,  or  by  Conventions  in  three-fourths  thereof,  as  the  one 
or  the  other  Mode  of  Ratification  may  be  proposed  by  the  Congress ; 
Provided  that  no  Amendment  which  may  be  made  prior  to  the  Year 
One  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight  shall  in  any  Manner  affect 
the  first  and  fourth  Clauses  in  the  Ninth  Section  of  the  first  Article; 
and  that  no  State,  without  its  Consent,  shall  be  deprived  of  its  equal 
Suffrage  in  the  Senate. 

Article.  VI. 

[1]  All  Debts  contracted  and  Engagements  entered  into,  before 
the  Adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  as  valid  against  the  L^nited 
States  under  this  Constitution,  as  under  the  Confederation. 

[2]  This  Constitution,  and  the  Laws  of  the  United  States  which 
shall  be  made  in  Pursuance  thereof;  and  all  Treaties  made,  or  which 
shall  be  made,  under  the  Authority  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  the 
supreme  Law  of  the  Land;  and  the  Judges  in  every  State  shall  be 
bound  thereby,  any  Thing  in  the  Constitution  or  Laws  of  any  State 
to  the  Contrary  notwithstanding. 

[3]  The  Senators  and  Representatives  before  mentioned,  and  the 
Members  of  the  several  State  Legislatures,  and  all  executive  and 
judicial  Officers,  both  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  several  States, 
shall  be  bound  by  Oath  or  Affirmation,  to  support  this  Constitution; 
but  no  Religious  Test  shall  ever  be  required  as  a  Qualification  to  any 
Office  or  public  Trust  under  the  United  States. 


APPENDIX  375 

Artklk.  \1I. 

Tlie  Ratififation  of  the  Conventions  of  nine  States,  shall  be  suffi- 
cient for  the  Establislunent  of  this  ('(jnstitution  Ijetween  the  States  so 
ratifying  the  Same. 

Done  in  Convention  by  the  Unanimous  Consent  of  tlie  States  pres- 
ent the  Seventeenth  Day  of  September  in  the  \vi\r  of  our  l>or(l 
one  thousand  seven  hundred  and  Eighty  seven  and  of  the 
Independenee  of  the  United  States  of  Ameriea  the  IVeiftli 
Ix    Witness    whereof   We  have  hereunto  subscribed  our    Names, 

G°.    WASHINtJToN- 

Presidt.  and  Deputy  from  Virginia 
[and  thirty  eight  members  from  all  the  States  except  Rhode  Island.] 


ARTICLES  IN  ADDITION  TO,  AND  AMENDMENT  OE,  THE 
CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  I'NITED  STATES  OE  AMERICA, 
PROPOSED  BY  CONCRESS.  AND  RATIFIED  \\\  THE  LECIS- 
LATURES  OF  THE  SE\ERAL  STATES  PURSUANT  TO  THE 
Firm  ARTICLE  OF  THE  ORKJIN.AL  CONSTITUTION. 

[AUTRLE    I  '] 

Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of  reli- 
gion, or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof;  or  abridging  the  fn-e- 
dom  of  speech,  or  of  the  press;  or  the  right  of  the  peojile  peaceably 
to  assemble,  and  to  petition  the  Ciovernment  for  a  redress  of  grievances. 

[Ainui.K   IP] 
A  well  regulated  Militia,  being  necessary  to  the  security  of  a  free 
State,  the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  Arms,  shall  not  be  in- 
fringed. 

[Aimti-K   III'l 

No  Soldier  shall,  in  time  of  jjcace  be  quartered  in  any  houM',  with- 
out the  consent  of  the  Owner,  nor  in  time  of  war.  but  in  a  manner  to 
be  prescribed  by  law. 

'First  ten  amendments  i)r<)iK)so(l  l.y  Congress.  Septcmlior  25,  1789.  Pro- 
claimed to  be  in  force  Decemher  !.'>,  1701. 


376  COMMUNITY   CIVICS 

[Article  IV  ^] 

The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses,  papers, 
and  effects,  against  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures,  shall  not  be 
violated,  and  no  Warrants  shall  issue,  but  upon  probable  cause,  sup- 
ported by  Oath  or  affirmation,  and  particularly  describing  the  place 
to  be  searched,  and  the  persons  or  things  to  be  seized. 

[Article  V^] 

No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital,  or  otherwise  in- 
famous crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of  a  Grand  Jury, 
except  in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the  Militia, 
when  in  actual  service  in  time  of  War  or  public  danger;  nor  shall 
any  person  be  subject  for  the  same  offence  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy 
of  life  or  limb;  nor  shall  be  compelled  in  any  Criminal  Case  to  be  a 
witness  against  himself,  nor  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty,  or  property, 
without  due  process  of  law;  nor  shall  private  property  be  taken  for 
public  use,  without  just  compensation. 

[Article  VP] 

In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right  to 
a  speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  State  and  dis- 
trict wherein  the  crime  shall  have  been  committed,  which  district 
shall  have  been  previously  ascertained  by  law,  and  to  be  informed 
of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  accusation;  to  be  confronted  with 
the  witnesses  against  him ;  to  have  compulsory  process  for  obtaining 
Witnesses  in  his  favor,  and  to  have  the  Assistance  of  Counsel  for  his 
defence. 

[Article  VII '] 

In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  controversy  shall  exceed 
twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved,  and  no 
fact  tried  by  a  jury  shall  be  otherwise  re-examined  in  any  Court  of 
the  United  States,  than  according  to  the  rules  of  the  common  law. 

'  First  ten  amendments  proposed  by  Congress,  September  25,  1789.  Pro-» 
claimed  to  be  in  force  December  15,  1791. 


AIM'KNDJX  ;^77 

[AhTK  I.K    \II1   'I 

Excessive  hail  sliall  not  lu-  recniircd,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed, 
nor  cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 

[AhTK  I.K    IX  'I 

The  cmiincr.itioii  in  the  ('oiistitiitiim,  <.f  ccrtMiii  ri^lil>,  ^h.ill  not  he 
construed  to  deny  or  disparage  others  rctiiiiicd  iiy  the  people. 

[AUTKI.K   X  ■] 

The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  hy  the  Constitu- 
tion, nor  prohihited  hy  it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the  States 
respectively,  or  to  the  people. 

Article  XI  - 

The  Judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  he  construed 
to  extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or  eijuity,  commenced  or  |)rosecuted  aj:ain>t 
one  of  the  United  States  by  Citizens  of  anotluT  State,  or  hy  Citizens 
or  Subjects  of  any  Foreign  State. 

Ahticle  XII ' 

The  Electors  .shall  meet  in  their  respective  states,  and  vote  hy 
ballot  for  President  and  Vice-President,  one  of  whom  at  least, 
shall  not  he  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  state  with  themselves;  they 
shall  name  in  their  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  President,  and  in 
distinct  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  they  shall 
make  distinct  lists  of  all  persons  voted  'or  as  President,  an<l  of  all 
persons  voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  of  the  niimlxT  of  votes  for 
each,  which  lists  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to 
the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  ilirc<'ted  to  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Senate;  —  The  President  of  the  .Senate  shall,  in  presence 
of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  ofM-n  all  the  certificates 
and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted  ;  —  The  person  having  the  greatest 
number  of  votes  for  President,  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  ninnber 

'  First  ten  amcndnioiits  proimsod  by  ConKres-s,  .'^ei)toml)or  2^,  17S'.).  Pro- 
claimed to  be  in  force  Dcccniher  1.'),  1701. 

'Proposed  September  5,  1794.     Declared  in  {vrro  .lanuJiry  S,  1798. 
'Proposed  December  12,  180.S.     Declared  in  force  Septeraljer  25,  1804. 


378  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  Electors  appointed;  and  if  no 
person  have  such  majority,  then  from  the  persons  having  the  highest 
numbers  not  exceeding  three  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  President, 
the  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  immediately,  by  ballot, 
the  President.  But  in  choosing  the  President,  the  votes  shall  be  taken 
by  states,  the  representation  from  each  state  having  one  vote ;  a  quorum 
for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two-thirds 
of  the  states,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  states  shall  be  necessary  to  a 
choice.  And  if  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  not  choose  a  Presi- 
dent whenever  the  right  of  choice  shall  devolve  upon  them,  before 
the  fourth  day  of  March  next  following,  then  the  Vice-President  shall 
act  as  President,  as  in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other  constitutional 
disability  of  the  President.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of 
votes  as  Vice-President,  shall  be  the  Vice-President,  if  such  number  be 
a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  Electors  appointed,  and  if  no  person 
have  a  majority,  then  from  the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list,  the 
Senate  shall  choose  the  Vice-President ;  a  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall 
consist  of  two-thirds  of  the  whole  number  of  Senators,  and  a  majority 
of  the  whole  num])er  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  But  no  person 
constitutionally  ineligible  to  the  office  of  President  shall  be  eligible 
to  that  of  Vice-President  of  the  United  States. 

Article  XIII  ^ 

Section  1.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude,  except  as 
a  punishment  for  crime  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  con- 
victed, shall  exist  within  the  United  States,  or  any  place  subject  to 
their  jurisdiction. 

Srrfion  2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by 
appropriate  legislation. 

Article  XIV  ^ 

Section  1.  All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States, 
and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  States 
and  of  the  State  wherein  they  reside.  No  State  shall  make  or  enforce 
any  law  which  sliall  abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens 

'Proposed  February  1.  186.5.     Declared  in  force  December  18,  1865. 
2  Proposed  June  16,  1866.     Declared  in  force  July  28,  1868. 


APPENDIX  379 

of  tlio  United  States;  nor  sluill  any  State  deprive  any  person  of  life, 
liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of  law;  nor  deny  to  any  j)erson 
within  its  jurisdiction  the  equal  protection  of  tiie  laws. 

Section  2.  Ilepresentatives  shall  he  ai)portione(l  ainonK  the  several 
States  according  to  their  respective  tiunihers,  couiitiiif,'  the  whole 
niiuii)er  of  persons  in  each  State,  excluding  Indians  not  taxed.  But 
wlicM  till'  right  to  vote  at  any  election  for  the  choice  of  electors  for 
President  and  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  Representatives 
in  Congress,  the  E.xecutive  and  Judicial  officers  of  a  State,  or  the  inemhers 
of  the  Legislature  thereof,  is  denied  to  any  of  the  male  inhabitants 
of  such  State,  being  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  citizens  of  the  United 
States,  or  in  any  way  abridged,  except  for  participation  in  rebellion, 
or  otluT  crime,  the  basis  of  represcHtation  therein  shall  be  reduced 
in  the  proportion  wliich  tlie  number  of  such  male  citizens  shall  bear 
to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizens  twenty-one  years  of  age  in  such 
State. 

Section  3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  or  Representative  in  Con- 
gress, or  elector  of  President  and  Nice-President,  or  hold  any  office, 
civil  or  military,  under  the  United  States,  or  under  any  State,  who, 
having  previously  taken  an  oath,  as  a  member  of  Congress,  or  as  an 
officer  of  the  United  States,  or  as  a  member  of  any  State  legislature, 
or  as  an  executive  or  judicial  officer  of  any  State,  to  support  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States,  shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection  or 
rebellion  against  the  same,  or  given  aid  or  comfort  to  the  enemies 
thereof.  But  Congress  may  by  two-thinls  vote  of  each  House,  re- 
move such  disability. 

Section  4.  The  vali<lity  of  ihr  |)iililic  il.l,t  df  th«'  Unitctl  States, 
aiithorized  by  law,  including  debts  incurred  for  payment  of  |)ensions 
and  bounties  for  services  in  su|)|)ressing  insurrection  or  n-bellion, 
shall  not  be  questioned.  B>it  neither  the  United  States  nor  any  State 
shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt  or  obligation  incurred  in  aid  of  insurrec- 
tion or  rebellion  against  the  United  States,  or  any  claim  for  the  loss  or 
emancipation  of  any  slave;  but  all  such  debts,  obligations  and  claim 
shall  be  held  illegal  and  void. 

Section  .').  The  Congress  shall  hav<'  power  to  enforce,  by  apj)r(>- 
priate  legislation,  the  pro\isions  of  this  article. 


380  COMMUNITY    CIVICS 

Article  XV ' 

Section  1.  The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall 
not  be  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by  any  State  on 
account  of  race,  color  or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 

Section  2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article 
by  appropriate  legislation. 

Article  XVI  ^      ' 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  collect  taxes  on  incomes, 
from  whatever  source  derived,  without  apportionment  among  the 
several  states,  and  without  regard  to  any  census  or  enumeration. 

Article  XVII ' 

The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of  two  Sena- 
tors from  each  State,  elected  by  the  people  thereof,  for  six  years; 
and  each  Senator  shall  have  one  vote.  The  electors  in  each  State  shall 
have  the  qualifications  requisite  for  electors  of  the  most  numerous 
branch  of  the  State  legislatures. 

When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  of  any  State  in  the 
Senate,  the  executive  authority  of  each  State  shall  issue  wTits  of  election 
to  fill  such  vacancies :  Pronded  that  the  legislature  of  any  State  may 
empower  the  executive  thereof  to  make  temporary  appointments  until 
the  people  fill  the  vacancies  by  election  as  the  legislature  may  direct. 

This  amendment  shall  not  be  so  construed  as  to  affect  the  election 
or  term  of  any  Senator  chosen  before  it  becomes  valid  as  part  of  the 
Constitution. 

Article  XVIII ' 

Section  1.  After  one  year  from  the  ratification  of  this  article  the 
manufacture,  sale,  or  transportation  of  intoxicating  liquors  within,  the 
importation  thereof  into,  or  the  exportation  thereof  from,  the  United 
States  and  all  territory  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof  for  beverage 
purposes  is  hereby  prohibited. 

'Proposed  Fel)ruary  27,  1869.     Declared  in  force  March  30,  1870. 
2  Proposed  July  12,  1909.     Declared  in  force  February  25,  1913. 
'Proposed  May  16,  1912.     Declared  iq  force  May  31,  1913. 
<  Ratified  January  16,  1919. 


APPENDIX  381 

Section  2.  The  Congress  and  tlie  several  States  shall  have  con- 
current power  to  enforce  this  article  hy  approjjriate  legislation. 

Section  IL  This  article  sliall  he  inoperative  unless  it  shall  have 
been  ratified  as  an  amendment  to  the  ("onstiliition  li\  the  legislatures  of 
the  several  States,  as  provided  in  the  Constitution,  within  seven  years 
from  the  date  of  the  submission  hereof  to  the  States  by  the  Congress. 

AUTICLE   XIX ' 

The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied 

or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  any  State  on  account  of  sex. 

Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate 

legislation. 

>  Ratified  August  JG,  1920. 


INDEX 


Accused,  rights  of,  1G2. 

Advisers  of  President  (sec  SecretarjO- 

Aldermen,  Board  of, 

duties  of,  258. 

how  chosen,  257. 
Ambassadors,  302,  30-3. 
Americanization,  48,  138,  146. 
Animal  life,  193,  194. 
Anti-trust  laws,  21G. 
Arizona,  281. 
Army,  75,  308-310. 
Arrest,  158. 
Associations,  92. 


Ballot,  short,  336,  337. 
Banks,  Farm  Loan,  220. 

Federal  Reserve,  220. 

kinds  of,  219-221. 
Beauty,  in  hack  yard,  229,  230. 

in  colonial  homes,  11,  224,  225. 

in  Dayton,  228. 

in  modern  homes,  225-228. 

in  schools,  44,  2.30. 

laws  for  protection  of,  238. 

of  lawns,  228. 
Bill,  how  it  becomes  a  law,  27 1-  27'i 
Billboards,  233-2.34. 
Bill  of  Rights,  354. 
Blacklist,  208. 
Bonds,  347. 
Boycott,  208. 

Boy  Scouts,  28,  92,  93,  1,S0. 
Bryce,  James,  268,  269,  338,  358. 
Business  and  citizenship,  222,  223. 


Cabinet  (sec  Secretary), 
choosing  of,  325. 
mcniljers  of,  324,  325. 
work  of,  325.  326. 


Cable,  128,  1.30. 
Canals,  barge,  107,  117. 

Erie,  105,  106. 

Panama,  111,  113,  118. 

Sault  St.  Marie,  118. 

Suez,  119. 
Capital,  definition  of,  212. 

use  of,  212. 
Capital  and  wealth,  213. 
Censorshij),  134,  135. 
Charity,  cost  of,  181. 

medical,  177. 

Red  Cross,  178. 

state  institutions  for,  179. 
Charters,  250. 
Checks.  218. 

Child  Labor  Committee,  199,  202. 
Children,  duties  of,  19,  122,  202. 

rights  of.  15.  18.  19. 
City,  iKMUty  in,  225,  227,  231   233. 

charter  of.  256. 

evil  conditions  in,  261. 

government  of,  257-261. 

mayor-council  tyi>e,  257-260. 
conunission  tyiw,  262,  263. 
city-manager  type,  263,  204. 

home  rule  of,  257. 

how  a  \-illage  l)ecomes  a,  255. 

judici;il  power  in,  260. 

officials  of,  2.59.  260. 

planning  of,  238. 

ugliness  in,  231. 
Clayton  Act.  216. 
Cleveland.    President,    97,    208.    293. 

296,  29S. 
Clothing.  204  206. 
Clul)s,  92. 

College,  why  go  to,  42,  43. 
Colonial  days,  advantJiges  of,  12. 
Combination    ty|)C    of    government, 
250,  251. 


383 


384 


INDEX 


Combined  districts,  36. 
Communication,         beginnings        @i 
modern,   125. 

colonial,  123-125. 

good  citizens  and,  136. 

government  and,  135. 

in  war,  130,  131. 
Community,  beginnings  of,  7. 

definition  of,  26. 

membership  in,  28. 

varieties  of,  27. 
Comparison  of,  houses  of  Congress, 
273. 

governments,  327-329. 

houses  of  state  law-makers,   267- 
269. 

powers  of  President  and  governor, 
294,  295. 

powers  of  Secretaries  of  State,  305, 
306. 
Congress  {see  Law-makers),  00. 

powers  of,  276-279. 
Connecticut,  246. 
Constable,  65,  69. 
Constabulary,  73. 

Constitution,    amendments   to,    354- 
356. 

changing  of,  355. 

contents  of,  356. 

making  of,  351. 

preliminaries  of,  351. 

ratification  of,  353. 

unwritten,  356. 
Consul,  303,  305. 
Cooperation,  44. 
Corporation,  definition  of,  214. 

kinds  of,  214,  216. 

schools,  39. 
Corporations  and  recreation,  90. 
County,  formation  of,  247,  248. 

government  of,  248,  249. 

powers  of,  250. 
Courts,  children's,  157,  260. 

civil  cases  in,  161. 

criminal  cases  in,  160. 

solemnity  of,  160. 

state,  167. 

Supreme,  168. 

United  States,  167. 
Credit,  meaning  of,  217. 

uses  of,  217-219. 
Critical  Period,  350. 


Department  (see  Secretary). 
Des  Moines,  263. 
Dickens,  Charles,  176. 
Differences  between,  houses  of  state 
law-makers,  269. 

houses  of  national  law-makers,  273. 
Duties,  in  school,  43. 

regarding  fire,  70,  71. 

regarding  health,  55. 

Education  (see  Schools). 

Bureau  of,  317. 

early,  12. 

other  means  of,  45. 

rea.sons  for,  46,  47,  172. 
Elections,  333. 
Electoral  College,  272-293. 
Ellis  Island,  142. 
Eminent  domain,  61. 
England,  government  of,  326,  327. 
Erie  Canal,  105-107. 
Evening  schools,  40. 

Federation  of  Labor,  210. 
Finance  (see  Chapter  XXIII). 

of  local  community,  341,  342. 

of  nation,  344-347. 

of  state,  343,  344. 
Fireman,  69,  70. 
Fiske,  John,  247,  248. 
Food,  inspection  of,  59,  60. 
Forestry,  Bureau  of,  186. 
Forests,  control  of,  188. 
Founding  of  a  community,  1-7. 
Fourth  of  July,  71. 
France,  government  of,  327,  328. 
Franklin,  Benjamin,  125,  352. 

Gallatin,  Albert,  105. 

Geologic  survey,  318. 

Girl  Scouts,  94. 

Government,  beginnings  of,  5,  13. 

compromise  type  of,  250,  251. 

functions  of,  242,  243. 

in  home,  13,  14,  22,  23,  26. 

local  form  of,  251. 

duty  of  citizen  in,  251,  252. 

of  town,  245-249. 

relations  of  local  and  state,  266. 
Governor,  duties  of,  281-285. 

election  of,  281. 

powers  of,  281-285. 


TXDRX 


385 


Hart.  A.  R..  liOi. 

Hiiskiii,  Uis. 

Hojiltli.  oarly  di.Mcjiard  of,  51. 

moans  of  protoftion  of,  .")5. 

modern  ideas  of,  52. 

of  spIiooI  children,  fi_'. 

rules  for,  62. 
Home,  colonial    11.  1:;. 

government  in.  1.5. 

how  govornniont  oomos  into,  2<>. 

importance  of,  2"). 

work  in,  11. 
Hou>e  of  Governors,  -JSX. 

Imniisration  (.vrt-  Migration). 

causes  of.  146-14N. 

results  of,  148-150. 
Inaufruration,  204. 
Incorporated  village.  251. 
Incorporation,  meaning  of.  25:}. 

process  of,  2.5.'5,  254. 
Indians,  Rureau  of,  320. 

trails.  09-102. 

writing  of.  12.3.  124. 
Indictment.  1.50. 
Industry.  22. 
Initiative.  2*y-i.  270. 
Innocent,  .safeguards  for.  1.5<1. 
Insurance,  a  methf)fl  of  .saving.  22'> 

/ire.  72. 

life.  222. 
Interstate     Conmiene     f'onmiission 

lis. 

Jefferson.  Thomas.  lOK,  247. 
•litue.v  Park.  2:?0,  2  10. 
•Jurv.  grand.  150. 
trial,  150-161. 

Labor,  advant.-igcs  of,  lOO. 

child.  100-202. 

division  of.  107   190. 

Federation  of.  210. 

Union.  207. 

women,  20:i.  201. 
I>and  oflice.  :>17. 
Lane.  Franklin  K.,  4S. 
Law-makers,  city.  257-250. 

f-ounty,  248-240. 

nation,  271-270. 

session  of,  274. 

state.  267,  200,  270. 

town,  245-247. 


Laws,  anti-trust.  216. 

for  the  home,  22.  , 

for  protection,  T.i. 

reasonableness  of,  154.  155. 

to  helf)  needy,  IHO. 
Lieutonant-Guvcrnor,  2S5. 
Lincoln,  President,  ;J4.  200.  20(>,  .3.32. 
Lumber,  saving  of,  ISO. 

state  control  of,  ISS. 

waste  of,  ISo.  186. 

Majorit.\-  rule,  338. 
Massachusetts,  115,  240,  200.  281. 
Mayor.  2.50. 

Mediation.  Btueau  of.  208. 
Migration.  1.38   145. 
causes  of,  146-140. 
government  and,  151. 
reasons  for,  147,  148. 
results  of,  148,  149. 
Military  Academy.  311,  312. 
Militia.  72. 
Minerals,  101. 
Mines,  Bureau  of.  310. 
Ministers.  303. 
Minnesota.  268. 
Modern  ideas  of  he.ilth,  52. 
Money,  manufacture  of,  ;!()(i.  :!07. 
Moonlight  .-Jchools.  40. 
Morse.  .*<.  I'.  H.,  128. 


National  (iuard.  72.  73. 
Natural  resources,  Icinds  of.  1S4. 

moaning  of,  184. 
Naval  Academy,  315. 
Navigation,  105-100,  101. 
I  Navy,  75,  313,  315. 
Need.v,  cau.ses  for  the  helj)  of.  171. 
Nevada,  268. 
New  England,  81,  100.  101 

249,  254. 
New  Hampshire,  208.  353. 
New  Jersey.  260.  281. 
New  ^'ork,   30.   58.  02,   85 

102,    105,    107,    100. 

152.    ISO.    101.   257. 

288. 
Now   York   City,   7, 

125,    134",    142, 

2.59,  260. 
Nominations,  by  conventions.  3.3 
by  other  methods.  333,  334. 


•M. 


.   00. 

no. 

268. 


24.   .53.   71, 
143,   206, 


172. 
21.5. 


101, 
115. 
270. 

87, 
242, 


386 


INDEX 


Obedience,  19,  20. 
Officials,  city,  257-260. 

county,  249. 

nation,  297. 

na^^,  315. 

state,  285-288. 

town,  246. 

war  department,  313. 


Panama  Canal,  112,  113. 
Parents,  as  teachers,  4,  12. 

powers  of,  14. 
Passports,  305. 
Patent  medicines,  GO. 
Patent  office,  317. 
Pennsylvania,  250,  251,  252,  284. 
Pension  office,  317. 
Philadelphia,  51,  259. 
Pietro,  story  of  (see  Migration). 
Pittsburg,  255. 
Play  (see  Recreation). 

education  through,  96,  97. 
Playgrounds,  84,  85,  87,  94. 
Policeman,  66-68. 
Political  parties,  differences  iu,  332. 

early,  330-332. 
Posse  comitatus,  249. 
Post  office,  curiosities  of,  127. 

work  of,  125,  126. 
Poverty,  education  and.  172. 

intemperance  and,  172. 

laziness  and,  173. 

relief  of,  174-181. 

war  and,  173. 
Powers  of  local  governnjcut,  251. 
President,  election  of,  292. 

judicial  powers  of,  298,  299. 

legislative  powers  of,  297,  298. 

power  of,  295,  296. 

fjualifications  of,  290. 

salary  of,  292. 

veto  power  of,  298, 
Private  schools,  42. 
Protection,  by  constable,  68. 

by  county,  72. 

by  firemen,  69,  70. 

by  nation,  74,  75,  76. 

bj'  police,  66-68. 

by  state,  72. 
Public  Service  Commission,  116,  136. 
Public  Work,  252. 


Punishments,  changes  in  methods  of 
163. 
colonial,  155,  1.56. 
new  methods  of,  164,  167. 
of  a  crime,  162. 

Quarantine,  local.  57. 
national,  58,  59,  141. 
state,  58. 

Railroads,  109-111,  110,  lis. 
Recall,  263,  270. 
Reclamation  service,  321. 
Recreation,  change  in,  82. 

corporations  and,  90. 

early,  80,  81. 

need  of  supervision  of,  9(. 

other  means  of,  85-90. 

reasons  for,  95. 
Red  Cross,  177,  178. 
Referendum,  263,  270. 
Relief,  indoor,  174,  175. 

of  poor  children,  176,  177. 

outdoor,  174. 
Representatives,  duties  of,  i'73,  274. 

Ijowers  of,  273. 

l>rohibitions  on,  274. 

(lualifications  for,  273. 
Rights,  fundamental,  66. 

in  school,  43. 

of  children,  15. 

of  accused  persons,  162. 
Riis,  Jacob,  25. 
Road,  Cumberland,  104. 
Roads,  early,  102,  103. 

in  the  South,  103,  lOi. 
Roosevelt,  Theodore,   113,  288,  290, 

298. 
Ruskin,  John,  224. 

Safety  First,  77. 
Saving,  methods  of,  221. 
Schools,  advanced,  33. 

beauty  in,  230. 

discipline  of,  33. 

early,  30-32. 

play  and,  96.  97. 

progress  of,  34,  35. 

support  of,  31. 

iniit  of,  35. 

varieties  of,  37,  38. 


IXDKX 


as: 


Secrelar>-,    of    Agriculture,    ."/i,    lis, 
3:^2,  323. 

of  Commerce,  1U».  323,  324. 

of  DcpartnuMit  of  Justice,  31.'),  31(1. 

of  Interior,  310-322. 

of  Labor,  324. 

of  Navy,  313-315. 

of  Post  Office,  125-127,  310. 

of  State,  301-300. 

of  Treasury,  307,  308. 

of  War,  313. 
Senators  of  the  United  Stutcs,  dutic- 
of,  272. 

election  of,  272. 

powers  of,  272. 

qualifications  of,  272. 
Sers'ice,  20. 
Sheriff,  249. 

Sherman  Anti-trust  Law,  210.  217. 
Slum,  battle  with,  25. 
Steamboats,  107,  108. 
Streets,  care  of,  52,  53,  55. 

importance  of,  7. 

names  of,  6,  7. 
Supervisors,  248. 
Sweatshops,  204  200. 
Switzerland,  goNcrnment  nf,  32.S. 

Tariff,  345. 

Taxation,  local,  341-343. 

national,  ;^4-346. 

sUte,  343,  344. 
Teachers,  early,  31. 
Telegraph,  127,  128. 

wireless,  130-133. 
Telephone,  130. 

new, 133. 

wireless,  132. 
Tenements,  evils  of,  23-25,  230,  237. 

problem  of,  237. 
Thoughtfulness,  21. 
Town,  government  of.  245  217. 

officials  of,  240. 

settlement  of,  244. 
Town  meeting,  245  247. 
Trails,  99-102. 


'l"r:iri>|ii»rt:Uii»ii,       K»voriinieiit      and, 
113. 

local,  114.  115. 

iii.Micrii.   113. 

ii:iti..ii:il,   117    II'.). 

our  share  in,  1 1'J    121. 

state,  115   117. 
Trees,  beauty  of,  235. 

problems  of,  23(). 

uses  of,  2.34. 
Trial,  100. 

Union,  colonial,  350. 
Union,  Labor,  207. 

VirKiiiia,  244,  247,  24.V 
Vocation,  choosing  a,   17,  4S. 
N'ocationai  .^^chools,  ,31). 
\'oting,  process  of,  335,  330. 

((Ualifications  for,  ;W4. 

registration  bi'foro,  335. 

responsibilitie.s  of,  330. 

Washington,  George,  24.  ,"{1.  51.  105, 

168,  290.  352. 
Waste  and  it.s  removal,  53,  54. 
Water,   goveriiiuciit   and    i-onrroJ   of, 
190. 

power,  189. 

pure  8uppl\-  of,  01. 

relation  of  forests  t.i,  lS«t. 

uses  of,  189. 
health,  dehnition  of,  I. S3. 

elements  of,  184. 

meaning  of,  183,  184. 

wlu'.l  ii  is,  183. 
West  Point,  311,  312. 
Williams  College,  249. 
Wilson,  Wootirow,  279,  288,  290.  296. 

298. 
Wireless  telegraph,  130   132. 
Wireless  U-lephone,  131    1.34. 
Work  in  colonial  home,  11. 
World  War.  42,  48,  02.  75,  93.    111. 
130.   l.Jl,   135,  3(M,  308. 


>'rlDt««l  in  the  UDlted  States  of  Auierku. 


